Soft and stretchy dielectric elastomer (DE) sensors can measure large strains on robotic devices and people. DE strain measurement requires electric energy to run the sensors. Energy is also required for information processing and telemetering of data to phone or computer. Batteries are expensive and recharging is inconvenient. One solution is to harvest energy from the strains that the sensor is exposed to. For this to work the harvester must also be wearable, soft, unobtrusive and profitable from the energy perspective; with more energy harvested than used for strain measurement. A promising way forward is to use the DE sensor as its own energy harvester. Our study indicates that it is feasible for a basic DE sensor to provide its own power to drive its own sensing signal. However telemetry and computation that are additional to this will require substantially more power than the sensing circuit. A strategy would involve keeping the number of Bluetooth data chirps low during the entire period of energy harvesting and to limit transmission to a fraction of the total time spent harvesting energy. There is much still to do to balance the energy budget. This will be a challenge but when we succeed it will open the door to autonomous DE multi-sensor systems without the requirement for battery recharge.
When we communicate face to face, we subconsciously engage our whole body to convey our message. In telecommunication, e.g. during phone calls, this powerful information channel cannot be used. Capturing nonverbal information from body motion and transmitting it to the receiver parallel to speech would make these conversations feel much more natural. This requires a sensing device that is capable of capturing different types of movements, such as the flexion and extension of joints, and the rotation of limbs. In a first embodiment, we developed a sensing glove that is used to control a computer game. Capacitive dielectric elastomer (DE) sensors measure finger positions, and an inertial measurement unit (IMU) detects hand roll. These two sensor technologies complement each other, with the IMU allowing the player to move an avatar through a three-dimensional maze, and the DE sensors detecting finger flexion to fire weapons or open doors. After demonstrating the potential of sensor fusion in human-computer interaction, we take this concept to the next level and apply it in nonverbal communication between humans. The current fingerspelling glove prototype uses capacitive DE sensors to detect finger gestures performed by the sending person. These gestures are mapped to corresponding messages and transmitted wirelessly to another person. A concept for integrating an IMU into this system is presented. The fusion of the DE sensor and the IMU combines the strengths of both sensor types, and therefore enables very comprehensive body motion sensing, which makes a large repertoire of gestures available to nonverbal communication over distances.
Hand motion is one of our most expressive abilities. By measuring our interactions with everyday objects, we can create
smarter artificial intelligence that can learn and adapt from our behaviours and patterns. One way to achieve this is to apply
wearable dielectric elastomer strain sensors directly onto the hand.
Applications such as this require fast, efficient and scalable sensing electronics. Most capacitive sensing methods use an
analogue sensing signal and a backend processor to calculate capacitance. This not only reduces scalability and speed of
feedback but also increases the complexity of the sensing circuitry.
A capacitive sensing method that uses a DC sensing signal and continuous tracking of charge is presented. The method is
simple and efficient, allowing large numbers of dielectric elastomer sensors to be measured simulatenously.
Sensing motion of the human body is a difficult task. From an engineers’ perspective people are soft highly mobile
objects that move in and out of complex environments. As well as the technical challenge of sensing, concepts such as
comfort, social intrusion, usability, and aesthetics are paramount in determining whether someone will adopt a sensing
solution or not.
At the same time the demands for human body motion sensing are growing fast. Athletes want feedback on posture and
technique, consumers need new ways to interact with augmented reality devices, and healthcare providers wish to track
recovery of a patient.
Dielectric elastomer stretch sensors are ideal for bridging this gap. They are soft, flexible, and precise. They are low
power, lightweight, and can be easily mounted on the body or embedded into clothing. From a commercialisation point
of view stretch sensing is easier than actuation or generation - such sensors can be low voltage and integrated with
conventional microelectronics.
This paper takes a birds-eye view of the use of these sensors to measure human body motion. A holistic description of
sensor operation and guidelines for sensor design will be presented to help technologists and developers in the space.
Dielectric elastomer generators (DEG) provide an opportunity to harvest energy from low frequency and aperiodic sources. Because DEG are soft, deformable, high energy density generators, they can be coupled to complex structures such as the human body to harvest excess mechanical energy. However, DEG are typically constrained by a rigid frame and manufactured in a simple planar structure. This planar arrangement is unlikely to be optimal for harvesting from compliant and/or complex structures. In this paper we present a soft generator which is fabricated into a 3 Dimensional geometry. This capability will enable the 3-dimensional structure of a dielectric elastomer to be customised to the energy source, allowing efficient and/or non-invasive coupling. This paper demonstrates our first 3 dimensional generator which includes a diaphragm with a soft elastomer frame. When the generator was connected to a self-priming circuit and cyclically inflated, energy was accumulated in the system, demonstrated by an increased voltage. Our 3D generator promises a bright future for dielectric elastomers that will be customised for integration with complex and soft structures. In addition to customisable geometries, the 3D printing process may lend itself to fabricating large arrays of small generator units and for fabricating truly soft generators with excellent impedance matching to biological tissue. Thus comfortable, wearable energy harvesters are one step closer to reality.
We report on the use of capacitive self-sensing to operate a DEA-based tunable grating in closed-loop mode. Due to their large strain capabilities, DEAs are key candidates for tunable optics applications. However, the viscoelasticity of elastomers is detrimental for applications that require long-term stability, such as tunable gratings and lenses. We show that capacitive sensing of the electrode strain can be used to suppress the strain drift and increase the response speed of silicone-based actuators. On the other hand, VHB actuators exhibit a time-dependent permittivity, which causes a drift between the device capacitance and its strain.
Dielectric elastomer generators (DEG) are variable capacitor power generators that are a highly promising technology
for harvesting energy from environmental sources because they have the ability to work over a wide frequency range
without sacrificing their high energy density or efficiency. DEG can also take on a wide range of configurations, so they
are customizable to the energy source.
A typical generation cycle requires electrical charge to be supplied and removed from the DEG at appropriate times as it
is mechanically deformed. The manner in which the DEG charge state is controlled greatly influences energy
production. The recently developed self-priming circuit can provide this functionality without any active electronics, but
it is not configurable to match the generator and its energy source. In this paper a highly configurable self-priming
circuit is introduced and an analysis of the self-priming DEG cycle is performed to obtain design rules to optimize the
rate at which it can boost its operating voltage. In a case study we compare the performance of an initial prototype selfpriming
circuit with one that has been intentionally optimized. The optimized generator voltage climbed from 30 V up
to 1500 V in 27 cycles, whereas the same generator required 37 cycles when the suboptimal self-priming circuit was
used.
Artificial muscles based on dielectric elastomers show enormous promise for a wide range of applications and are slowly
moving from the lab to industry. One problem for industrial uptake is the expensive, rigid, heavy and bulky high voltage
driver, sensor and control circuitry that artificial muscle devices currently require.
One recent development, the Dielectric Elastomer Switch(es) (DES), shows promise for substantially reducing auxiliary
circuitry and helping to mature the technology. DES are piezoresistive elements that can be used to form logic, driver,
and sensor circuitry. One particularly useful feature of DES is their ability to embed oscillatory behaviour directly into
an artificial muscle device.
In this paper we will focus on how DES oscillators can break down the barriers to industrial adoption for artificial
muscle devices. We have developed an improved artificial muscle ring oscillator and applied it to form a
mechanosensitive conveyor. The free running oscillator ran at 4.4 Hz for 1056 cycles before failing due to electrode
degradation. With better materials artificial muscle oscillators could open the door to robots with increased power to
weight ratios, simple-to-control peristaltic pumps, and commercially viable artificial muscle motors.
We report on the use of zipping actuation applied to dielectric elastomer actuators to microfabricate mm-sized pumps.
The zipping actuators presented here use electrostatic attraction to deform an elastomeric membrane by pulling it into
contact with a rigid counter electrode. We present several actuation schemes using either conventional DEA actuation,
zipping, or a combination of both in order to realize microfluidic devices. A zipping design in which the electric field is
applied across the elastomer membrane was explored theoretically and experimentally. Single zipping chambers and a
micropump body made of a three chambers connected by an embedded channel were wet-etched into a silicon wafer and
subsequently covered by a gold-implanted silicone membrane. We measured static deflections of up to 300 μm on
chambers with square openings of 1.8 and 2.6 mm side, in very good agreement with our model.
Development of dielectric elastomer actuators has been mainly targeted towards achieving giant static strain
with little attention paid to their response speed, which can, depending on materials used, be as long as tens
of seconds. However, most of the practical applications require actuators capable of changing shape quickly,
therefore a careful choice of materials and technologies for the dielectric and electrodes must be made. Test
oscillating actuators, made with a range of silicone membranes with different hardness were tested, and the
compliant electrodes were made with different technologies: carbon powder, carbon grease, conductive rubber
and metal ion implantation. The transient response of the actuators to a step input was measured with a high
speed camera at 5000 frames per seconds for the different combinations of membrane material and electrodes.
The results show that the dynamic response of the actuators is extremely dependent on the membrane material,
as expected, but also on the compliant electrodes, whose impact cannot be neglected.
Manipulators based on rigid, kinematically constrained structures and highly geared electromagnetic actuators are poorly
suited in applications where objects are soft, delicate, or have an irregular shape, especially if they operate outside of the
highly structured environment of a factory. Intrinsically soft DEA, imparted with the ability to self-sense enable the
creation of soft, smart artificial muscles provide a way forward. Inherent compliance simplifies manipulator trajectory
planning and force control, enables the manipulator to conform to the object, and provides natural damping of
mechanical disturbances. In this paper we present a simple proof-of-concept building block that could be used to create a
compliant DEA-based manipulator with self-sensing feedback. Capacitive self-sensing has been used to both detect
when contact is made with an object and gather information about the object's stiffness. Integrated into a manipulator,
this information could be used to adjust the grip directly, or used to reposition or reorient the manipulator to achieve a
desired grasp.
To reduce the likelihood of ventilator induced lung injury a neonatal lung simulator is developed based on Dielectric
Elastomer Actuators (DEAs). DEAs are particularly suited for this application due to their natural like response as well
as their self-sensing ability. By actively controlling the DEA, the pressure and volume inside the lung simulator can be
controlled giving rise to active compliance control. Additionally the capacitance of the DEA can be used as a
measurement of volume eliminating the integration errors that plague flow sensors.
Based on simulations conducted with the FEA package ABAQUS and experimental data, the characteristics of the lung
simulator were explored. A relationship between volume and capacitance was derived based on the self sensing of a
bubble actuator. This was then used to calculate the compliance of the experimental bubble actuator. The current results
are promising and show that mimicking a neonatal lung with DEAs may be possible.
The global demand for renewable energy is growing, and ocean waves and wind are renewable energy
sources that can provide large amounts of power. A class of variable capacitor power generators called
Dielectric Elastomer Generators (DEG), show considerable promise for harvesting this energy because they
can be directly coupled to large broadband motions without gearing while maintaining a high energy density,
have few moving parts, and are highly flexible.
At the system level DEG cannot currently realize their full potential for flexibility, simplicity and low mass
because they require rigid and bulky external circuitry. This is because a typical generation cycle requires
high voltage charge to be supplied or drained from the DEG as it is mechanically deformed.
Recently we presented the double Integrated Self-Priming Circuit (ISPC) generator that minimized external
circuitry. This was done by using the inherent capacitance of DEG to store excess energy. The DEG were
electrically configured to form a pair of charge pumps. When the DEG were cyclically deformed, the charge
pumps produced energy and converted it to a higher charge form. In this paper we present the single ISPC
generator that contains just one charge pump. The ability of the new generator to increase its voltage through
the accumulation of generated energy did not compare favourably with that of the double ISPC generator.
However the single ISPC generator can operate in a wider range of operating conditions and the mass of its
external circuitry is 50% that of the double ISPC generator.
We use our thumbs and forefingers to rotate an object such as a control knob on a stereo system by
moving our finger relative to our thumb. Motion is imparted without sliding and in a precise manner. In
this paper we demonstrate how an artificial muscle membrane can be used to mimic this action. This is
achieved by embedding a soft gear within the membrane. Deformation of the membrane results in
deformation of the polymer gear and this can be used for motor actuation by rotating the shaft.
The soft motors were fabricated from 3M VHB4905 membranes 0.5mm thick that were pre-stretched
equibiaxially to a final thickness of 31 μm. Each membrane had polymer acrylic soft gears inserted at
the center. Sectors of each membrane (60° sector) were painted on both sides with conducting carbon
grease leaving gaps between adjoining sectors to avoid arcing between them. Each sector was
electrically connected to a power supply electrode on the rigid acrylic frame via narrow avenues of
carbon-grease. The motors were supported in rigid acrylic frames aligned concentrically. A flexible
shaft was inserted through both gears. Membranes were charged using a step wave PWM voltage
signal delivered using a Biomimetics Lab EAP Control unit. Both membrane viscoelasticity and the
resisting torque on the shaft influence motor speed by changing the effective circumference of the
flexible gear.
This new soft motor opens the door to artificial muscle machines molded as a single part.
Sensing the electrical characteristics of a Dielectric Elastomer Actuator(s) (DEA) during actuation is critical to
improving their accuracy and reliability. We have created a self-sensing system for measuring the equivalent series
resistance of the electrodes, leakage current through the equivalent parallel resistance of the dielectric membrane, and the
capacitance of the DEA whilst it is being actuated. This system uses Pulse Width Modulation (PWM) to simultaneously
generate an actuation voltage and a periodic oscillation that enables the electrical characteristics of the DEA to be
sensed. This system has been specifically targeted towards low-power, portable devices. In this paper we experimentally
validate the self-sensing approach, and present a simple demonstration of closed loop control of the area of an expanding
dot DEA using capacitance feedback.
KEYWORDS: Finite element methods, Electrodes, Artificial muscles, Dielectrics, Data modeling, Chemical elements, Neodymium, Biomimetics, Optical lithography, Linear elements
The Biomimetics Laboratory has developed a soft artificial muscle motor based on Dielectric Elastomers. The motor,
'Flexidrive', is light-weight and has low system complexity. It works by gripping and turning a shaft with a soft gear,
like we would with our fingers.
The motor's performance depends on many factors, such as actuation waveform, electrode patterning, geometries and
contact tribology between the shaft and gear. We have developed a finite element model (FEM) of the motor as a study
and design tool. Contact interaction was integrated with previous material and electromechanical coupling models in
ABAQUS. The model was experimentally validated through a shape and blocked force analysis.
Dielectric Elastomer Generator(s) (DEG) have many unique properties that give them advantages over
conventional electromagnetic generators. These include the ability to effectively generate power from slow and
irregular motions, low cost, relatively large energy density, and a soft and flexible nature. For DEG to generate
usable electrical energy circuits for charging (or priming) the stretched DEG and regulating the generated
energy when relaxed are required. Most prior art has focused on the priming challenge, and there is currently
very little work into developing circuits that address design issues for extracting the electrical energy and
converting it into a usable form such as low DC voltages (~10 V) for small batteries or AC mains voltage (~100
V).
This paper provides a brief introduction to the problems of regulating the energy generated by DEG. A buck
converter and a charge pump are common DC-DC step-down circuits and are used as case studies to explore the
design issues inherent in converting the high voltage energy into a form suitable for charging a battery. Buck
converters are efficient and reliable but also heavy and bulky, making them suitable for large scale power
generation. The smaller and simpler charge pump, though a less effective energy harvester, is better for small
and discrete power generation. Future development in miniature DE fabrication is expected to reduce the high
operational voltages, simplifying the design of these circuits.
Life shows us that the distribution of intelligence throughout flexible muscular networks is a highly successful solution
to a wide range of challenges, for example: human hearts, octopi, or even starfish. Recreating this success in engineered
systems requires soft actuator technologies with embedded sensing and intelligence. Dielectric Elastomer Actuator(s)
(DEA) are promising due to their large stresses and strains, as well as quiet flexible multimodal operation. Recently
dielectric elastomer devices were presented with built in sensor, driver, and logic capability enabled by a new concept
called the Dielectric Elastomer Switch(es) (DES). DES use electrode piezoresistivity to control the charge on DEA and
enable the distribution of intelligence throughout a DEA device.
In this paper we advance the capabilities of DES further to form volatile memory elements. A set reset flip-flop with
inverted reset line was developed based on DES and DEA. With a 3200V supply the flip-flop behaved appropriately and
demonstrated the creation of dielectric elastomer memory capable of changing state in response to 1 second long set and
reset pulses. This memory opens up applications such as oscillator, de-bounce, timing, and sequential logic circuits; all of
which could be distributed throughout biomimetic actuator arrays.
Future work will include miniaturisation to improve response speed, implementation into more complex circuits, and
investigation of longer lasting and more sensitive switching materials.
Dielectric Elastomer Generator(s) (DEG), are essentially variable capacitor power generators formed by hyper-elastic
dielectric materials sandwiched between flexible electrodes.
Electrical energy can be produced from a stretched, charged DEG by relaxing the mechanical deformation whilst
maintaining the amount of charge on its electrodes. This increases the distance between opposite charges and packs likecharges
more densely, increasing the amount of electrical energy. DEG show promise for harvesting energy from
environmental sources such as wind and ocean waves. DEG can undergo large inhomogeneous deformations and
electric fields during operation, meaning it can be difficult to experimentally determine optimal designs. Also, the circuit
that is used for harnessing DEG energy influences the DEG output by controlling the amount of charge on the DEG.
In this paper an integrated DEG model was developed where an ABAQUS finite element model is used to model the
DEG and data from this model is input to a system level LT-Spice circuit simulation. As a case-study, the model was
used as a design tool for analysing a diaphragm DEG connected to a self-priming circuit. That is, a circuit capable of
overcoming electrical losses by using some of the DEG energy to boost the charge in the system. Our ABAQUS model
was experimentally validated to predict the varying capacitance of a diaphragm DEG deformed inhomogeneously to
within 6% error.
Arrays of actuators are ubiquitous in nature for manipulation, pumping and propulsion. Often these arrays are
coordinated in a multi-level fashion with distributed sensing and feedback manipulated by higher level controllers. In
this paper we present a biologically inspired multi-level control strategy and apply it to control an array of Dielectric
Elastomer Actuators (DEA). A test array was designed consisting of three DEA arranged to tilt a set of rails on which a
ball rolls. At the local level the DEA were controlled using capacitive self-sensing state machines that switched the
actuator off and on when capacitive thresholds were exceeded, resulting in the steady rolling of the ball around the rails.
By varying the voltage of the actuators in the on state, it was possible to control the speed of the ball to match a set point.
A simple integral derivative controller was used to do this and an observer law was formulated to track the speed of the
ball.
The array demonstrated the ability to self start, roll the ball in either direction, and run at a range of speeds determined by
the maximum applied voltage. The integral derivative controller successfully tracked a square wave set point. Whilst the
test application could have been controlled with a classic centralised controller, the real benefit of the multi-level strategy
becomes apparent when applied to larger arrays and biomimetic applications that are ideal for DEA. Three such
applications are discussed; a robotic heart, a peristaltic pump and a ctenophore inspired propulsion array.
KEYWORDS: Microsoft Foundation Class Library, Wind energy, Capacitance, Capacitors, Robots, Solar energy, Dielectrics, Robotics, Energy harvesting, Actuators
We are developing a hybrid Dielectric Elastomer Generator (DEG)-Microbial Fuel Cell (MFC) energy harvester . The
system is for EcoBot, an Autonomous Robot (AR) that currently uses its MFCs to extract electrical energy from
biomass, in the form of flies. MFCs, though reliable are slow to store charge. Thus, EcoBot operations are
characterized by active periods followed by dormant periods when energy stores recover. Providing an alternate
energy harvester such as a DEG, driven by wind or water, could therefore increase active time and also provide high
voltage energy for direct use by on-board systems employing dielectric elastomer actuators (DEAs).
Energy can be harvested from a DEG when work is done on its elastomer membrane.. However, the DEG requires an
initial charge and additional charge to compensate for losses due to leakage. The starting charge can be supplied by
the EcoBot MFC capacitor.
We have developed a self-primer circuit that uses some of the harvested charge to prime the membrane at each cycle.
The low voltage MFC initial priming charge was boosted using a voltage converter that was then electrically
disconnected. The DEG membrane was cyclically stretched producing charge that replenished leakage losses and
energy that could potentially be stored. A further study demonstrated that the DEG with self-primer circuit can boost
voltage from very low values without the need for a voltage converter, thus reducing circuit complexity and improving
efficiency.
Ctenophores or "comb jellies" are small sea creatures that propel themselves with rows of ciliated bending actuators or
'paddles'. In some species the actuators are coordinated via mechano-sensitivity; the physical contact of one paddle
triggers the motion of the next resulting in a wave of activation along the row. We seek to replicate this coordination
with an array of capacitive self-sensing Dielectric Elastomer Minimum Energy Structure(s) (DEMES) bending actuators.
For simplicity we focused on a conveyor application in air where four DEMES were used to roll cylindrical loads along
some rails. Such a system can automatically adjust to changing load dynamics and requires very little computational
overhead to achieve coordination.
We used a finite element modelling approach for DEMES development. The model used a hybrid Arruda-Boyce strain
energy function augmented with an electrostatic energy density term to describe the DEA behaviour. This allowed the
use of computationally efficient membrane elements giving simulation times of approximately 15 minutes and thus rapid
design development. Criteria addressing failure modes, the equilibrium state, and stroke of the actuators were developed.
The model had difficulty in capturing torsional instability in the frame thus design for this was conducted
experimentally.
The array was built and successfully propelled teflon and brass rollers up an incline. Noise in the capacitive sensor
limited the sensitivity of the actuators however with PCB circuit fabrication this problem should be solved.
We describe a low profile and lightweight membrane rotary motor based on the dielectric elastomer actuator (DEA). In
this motor phased actuation of electroded sectors of the motor membrane imparts orbital motion to a central gear that
meshes with the rotor.
Two motors were fabricated: a three phase and four phase with three electroded sectors (120°/sector) and four sectors
(90°/sector) respectively. Square segments of 3M VHB4905 tape were stretched equibiaxially to 16 times their original
area and each was attached to a rigid circular frame. Electroded sectors were actuated with square wave voltages up to
2.5kV. Torque/power characteristics were measured. Contactless orbiter displacements, measured with the rotor
removed, were compared with simulation data calculated using a finite element model.
A measured specific power of approximately 8mW/g (based on the DEA membrane weight), on one motor compares
well with another motor technology. When the mass of the frame was included a peak specific power of 0.022mW/g was
calculated. We expect that motor performance can be substantially improved by using a multilayer DEA configuration,
enabling the delivery of direct drive high torques at low speeds for a range of applications.
The motor is inherently scalable, flexible, flat, silent in operation, amenable to deposition-based manufacturing
approaches, and uses relatively inexpensive materials.
This paper presents an experimentally validated, nonlinear finite element model capable of predicting the blocked force
produced by Dielectric Elastomer Minimum Energy Structure (DEMES) bending actuators. DEMES consist of pre-stretched
dielectric elastomer (DE) films bonded to thin frames, the complex collapse of which can produce useful
bending actuation. Key advantages of DEMES include the ability to be fabricated in-plane, and the elimination of bulky
pre-stretch supports which are often found in other DE devices.
Triangular DEMES with 3 different pre-stretch ratios were fabricated. Six DEMES at each stretch ratio combination
were built to quantify experimental scatter which was significant due to the highly sensitive nature of the erect DEMES
equilibrium point. The best actuators produced approximately 10mN blocked force at 2500V.
We integrate an Arruda-Boyce model incorporating viscoelastic effects with the Proney series to describe the stress-strain
response of the elastomer, and a Neo-Hookean model to describe the frame. Maxwell pressure was simulated using
a constant thickness approximation and an isotropic membrane permittivity was calculated for the stress state of the
DEMES membrane.
Experimental data was compared with the model and gave reasonable correlation. The model tended to underestimate the
blocked force due to a constant thickness assumption during the application of Maxwell stress. The spread due to
dielectric constant variance is also presented and compared with the spread of experimental scatter in the results.
This paper presents a method for creating a smart Dielectric Elastomer Actuator (DEA) with an integrated extension
sensor based on resistance and voltage measurement. Such a sensor can reduce cost, complexity, and weight compared to
external sensor solutions when used in applications where external sensing is difficult or costly, such as Micro-Electro-
Mechanical Systems (MEMS). The DEAs developed for integrated feedback are 20mm by 70mm and 30 &mgr;m thick
double layer silicone-dielectric actuators with reinforcing silicone ribs. Loose-carbon-powder electrodes produced the
best electrical and mechanical characteristics out of several possibilities tried.
Electrically isolated circuits were used to measure electrode resistance and driving voltage. These parameters were then
related to experiment using a model to predict DEA length. An offline regression method was used to fit the model to
within 2% of the full sensor range and the results were verified experimentally. The sensor feedback inaccuracy
immediately after a position step disturbance was shown to be around 20% of the full sensor range. This improved over 5
seconds to less than 5% as the transient creep effects in the silicone membrane that introduced the initial inaccuracy
decayed. Long term creep reduced the accuracy of the model, necessitating periodic retraining of the sensor. Overall the
sensor-estimated extension shows a very good qualitative or 'shape' match with the actual extension in the system.
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