We propose a modification of a water balance method (NDVI-Cws) aimed at improving the estimation of actual evapotranspiration in forest areas. The improvement concerns the calibration of the Cws meteorological factor, which regulates the sensitivity of forest ecosystems to short-term water stress. Such calibration is based on Satellite Application Facility on Land Surface Analysis evapotranspiration products, which are informative on the actual impact of water stress on plant evapotranspiration. The original and calibrated versions of NDVI-Cws are applied in two environmentally diversified forest areas in Central Italy, where water fluxes were measured by the eddy covariance technique. The first site corresponds to a Mediterranean coastal pine forest (San Rossore) and the second to a mountain beech forest (Collelongo), where water fluxes were measured for the years 2001 to 2005 and 2000 to 2009, respectively. The calibration performed leaves unchanged the model setting for San Rossore while it induces a reduction of the model sensitivity to water stress for Collelongo. The calibrated NDVI-Cws version yields optimal evapotranspiration estimation accuracies for both study sites; the determination coefficient is around 0.90, the root mean square error is lower than 0.30 mm day − 1 and the mean bias error is around ±0.01 mm day − 1. These findings indicate that the modified water stress factor is a realistic descriptor of the soil–vegetation–atmosphere response of forest ecosystems to water shortage.
Biogeochemical ecosystem models describe the energy and mass exchange processes between natural systems and their environment. They normally require a large amount of inputs that present important spatial variations and require a parameterization. Other simpler ecosystem models focused on a single process only need a reduced amount of inputs usually derived from direct measurements and can be combined with the former models to calibrate their parameters. This study combines the biogeochemical model Biome-BGC and a production efficiency model (PEM) optimized for the study area to calibrate a key parameter for the simulation of the ecosystem water balance by Biome-BGC, the rooting depth. Daily gross primary production (GPP) time series for the 2005-2012 period are simulated by both models. First, the optimized PEM is validated against GPP derived from four eddy covariance (EC) towers located at different ecosystems representative of the study area. Next, GPP time series simulated by both models are combined to optimize rooting depth at the four sites: different values of rooting depth are tested and the one that results in the lowest root mean square error (RMSE) between the two GPP series is selected. Explained variance and relative RMSE between Biome- BGC and EC GPP series are respectively augmented between 3 and 14 percentage points (pp) and reduced between 1 and 33pp. Finally the methodology is extrapolated for the whole study area and an original rooting depth map for peninsular Spain, which is coherent with the spatial distribution of vegetation type and GPP in the study area, is obtained at 1-km spatial resolution.
National forest inventories provide measurements of forest variables (e.g. growing stock) that can be used for the estimation of above ground biomass (AGB). Mapping growing stock brings knowledge about spatial distribution and temporal dynamics of ABG, which is necessary for carbon cycle analysis. Several studies have been conducted on the integration of ground and optical remote sensing data to map forest biomass over Europe. Nevertheless, more direct information on forest biomass could be obtained by LiDAR techniques, which directly assess vertical forest structure by measuring the distance between the sensor and the scattering elements located inside the canopy volume. Thus, global 1-km maps of forest canopy height have been recently obtained from the Geoscience Laser Altimeter System (GLAS). The current study aims to produce a forest growing stock map in Spain. Five different forest type areas were identified in three provinces along a North – South gradient accounting for different ecosystems and climatic conditions. Growing stock ground data from the Third Spanish National Forest Inventory were assigned to each forest type and aggregated to 1-km spatial resolution. GLAS-derived canopy height was extracted for the locations of selected ground data. A relationship between inventory growing stock and satellite canopy height was found for each class. The obtained relationships were then extended all over Spain. The accuracy of the resulting growing stock map was assessed at province level against the Third Spanish National Forest Inventory growing stock estimations (R = 0.85, RMSE = 21 m3 ha-1).
Geographically weighted regression (GWR) procedures can be adapted to enhance the spatial features of low spatial resolution maps based on higher resolution remotely sensed imagery. This operation relies on the assumption that the GWR models developed at low resolution can be proficiently applied to higher resolution data. An example of such an application is presented for downscaling a forest growing stock map which has been recently produced over the Italian national territory. GWR was applied to a Landsat Thematic Mapper image of Tuscany (Central Italy) for downscaling the growing stock predictions from a 1-km to a 100-m resolution. The accuracy of the experiment was assessed versus the measurements of a regional forest inventory. The results obtained indicate that GWR can enhance the spatial features of the original map depending on the spatially variable correlation existing between the forest attribute and the ancillary data used. A final ecosystem modeling exercise demonstrates the utility of the spatially enhanced growing stock predictions to drive the simulation of the main forest processes.
A single-tree identification method has been applied to light detection and ranging (LiDAR) data acquired over a protected coastal area in Tuscany (San Rossore Regional Park, Central Italy). The method, which is based on the computation of the convergence index from the LiDAR tree-height image, is capable of identifying individual pine trees in densely populated stands. The main features of each pine tree (height and crown size) are also estimated, which allows the final prediction of stem volume. The accuracy of the stem volume estimates is first assessed through a comparison with the ground measurements of a recent forest inventory of the park [San Rossore Forest Inventory (SRFI)]. This test indicates that stem volume is predicted with moderate accuracy at stand level (r around 0.65). The stem volume estimates are then used to drive a modeling strategy which, on the basis of remotely sensed and ancillary data, is capable of predicting stem volume current annual increment (CAI). A final accuracy assessment indicates that the use of LiDAR stem volumes in place of the SRFI measurements only slightly deteriorates the quality of the obtained stand CAI estimates.
Chiara Lapucci, Marina Rella, Carlo Brandini, Nicolas Ganzin, Bernardo Gozzini, Fabio Maselli, Luca Massi, Caterina Nuccio, Alberto Ortolani, Charles Trees
The estimation of chlorophyll concentration in marine waters is fundamental for a number of scientific and practical purposes. Standard ocean color algorithms applicable to moderate resolution imaging spectroradiometer (MODIS) imagery, such as OC3M and MedOC3, are known to overestimate chlorophyll concentration ([CHL]) in Mediterranean oligotrophic waters. The performances of these algorithms are currently evaluated together with two relatively new algorithms, OC5 and SAM_LT, which make use of more of the spectral information of MODIS data. This evaluation exercise has been carried out using in situ data collected in the North Tyrrhenian and Ligurian Seas during three recent oceanographic campaigns. The four algorithms perform differently in Case 1 and Case 2 waters defined following global and local classification criteria. In particular, the mentioned [CHL] overestimation of OC3M and MedOC3 is not evident for typical Case 1 waters; this overestimation is instead significant in intermediate and Case 2 waters. OC5 and SAM_LT are less sensitive to this problem, and are generally more accurate in Case 2 waters. These results are finally interpreted and discussed in light of a possible operational utilization of the [CHL] estimation methods.
Simulating the main terms of forest carbon budget (GPP, NPP, NEE) is important for both scientific and practical
reasons. This operation was performed for a region of Central Italy (Tuscany) by the integrated processing of ground and
satellite data. Several data layers (meteorology, forest type, volume, etc.) were first collected in order to characterize the
eco-climatic and forest features of the region. FAPAR estimates with 1 km resolution were obtained by processing VGT
NDVI data. Relying on these data sets, monthly estimates of forest GPP were produced by means of a simplified, NDVIbased
parametric model, C-Fix. These GPP estimates were used to calibrate a well known bio-geochemical model,
BIOME-BGC, in order to find its best configurations for simulating all main functions (photosynthesis, respirations,
allocations, etc.) of the most widespread Tuscany forest types. The calibrated versions of BIOME-BGC were then
applied to produce respiration estimates for all regional forest surfaces during the study period. The obtained GPP and
respiration estimates, which were referred to equilibrium conditions, were converted into the values of actual forests by
applying a simplified approach which relies on the ratio of actual over potential tree volume as an indicator of forest
distance from climax. The C-Fix photosynthesis estimates of actual forests were finally integrated with relevant BIOMEBGC
simulated respirations in order to assess net forest carbon fluxes.
Global standard ocean colour algorithms may be inefficient to estimate the concentration of seawater constituents in the
Mediterranean Sea. Local overestimation or underestimation of chlorophyll, suspended sediments and yellow substance
are in fact quite common. To avoid this problem, our research group works on the local calibration of empirical or semi-analytical
algorithms through comparison to in situ measured data. The spectral features of chlorophyll, suspended
sediments and yellow substance were found for a number of samples near the coast of Tuscany (Italy). An
unconventional algorithm was then developed and applied to satellite data (MODIS) for the retrieval of water constituent
concentrations. This inversion algorithm is based on the minimization of the spectral angle between simulated and
measured remote sensing reflectances. The estimated concentrations show a lower error with respect to that obtained by
a standard error minimization criterion. Monthly maps of seawater constituent concentrations obtained by applying the
proposed algorithm to numerous satellite images confirm the oligotrophic nature of the Tuscany Sea, where high values
of these concentrations can be found only in early spring near the mouths of the main rivers.
In the present work we show the potential of multiangular hyperspectral PROBA-CHRIS data to estimate aerosol optical properties over dense dark vegetation. Data acquired over San Rossore test site (Pisa, Italy) have been used together with simultaneous ground measurements. Additionally, spectral measurement over the canopy have been performed to describe the directional behavior of a Pinus pinaster canopy. Determination of aerosol properties from optical remote sensing images over land is an under-determined problem, and some assumptions have to be made on both the aerosol and the surface being imaged. Radiance measured on multiple directions add extra information that help in reducing retrieval ambiguity. Nevertheless, multiangular observations don't allow to ignore directional spectral properties of vegetation canopies. Since surface reflectivity is the parameter we wish to determine with remote sensing after atmospheric correction, at least the shape of the bi-directional reflectance factor has to be assumed. We have adopted a Rahman BRF, and have estimated its geometrical parameters from ground spectral measurements. The inversion of measured radiance to obtain aerosol optical properties has been performed, allowing simultaneous retrieval of aerosol model and optical thickness together with the vegetation reflectivity parameter of the Rahman model.
Measurements of spectro-directional radiances done with the imaging spectrometer CHRIS on-board the agile platform PROBA are being used to determine key properties of terrestrial vegetation at the appropriate spatial resolution. These data on vegetation properties can then be used to improve the accuracy and the parameterizations of models describing biosphere processes, i.e. photosynthesis and water use by irrigated crops and trees.
The vegetation properties considered are: albedo, Leaf Area Index (LAI), fractional cover, fraction of absorbed photosynthetically active radiation (fAPAR) and canopy chlorophyll content.
The Natural Park of San Rossore (Pisa, Central Italy) is a primary test site for several national and international research projects dealing with forest ecosystem monitoring. In particular, since 1999 measurements of transpiration and ecosystem gas-exchange have been regularly taken in the park pine forest to characterize its main water and carbon fluxes. In the same period, several aerial flights have been carried out with onboard hyper-spectral sensors (MIVIS, VIRS, AISA), while a series of satellite images have been acquired using both conventional (NOAAAVHRR, Landsat-TM/ETM+) and advanced sensors (CHRIS-PROBA).
The final objective of these activities is to calibrate and validate methodologies which integrate remotely sensed and ancillary data for monitoring forest ecosystem. More specifically, a major research effort has been focused on evaluating the additional information content provided by advanced hyper-spectral multi-angular sensors about the main parameters needed for forest characterization (species, LAI, pigment content, etc.). These activities are part of
projects which are financed by the Italian and European Space Agencies (ASI and ESA, respectively) within the framework of the CHRIS-PROBA and SPECTRA missions.
During 2002 and 2003 nine complete multi-angular acquisitions were successfully performed over the San Rossore site. This paper summarizes first results of the evaluation of data acquired so far, particularly forward modeling of Top Of Canopy (TOC) reflectances. The models KUUSK, SAIL and GeoSAIL were used to simulate spectro-directional reflectance of different stands in the forest and compared with PROBA - CHRIS and airborne hyperspectral observations. Deviations of simulated from observed reflectances were significant.
The Officine Galileo (OG) Hyperspectral Camera (HYC) (currently under development in the frame of the Hypseo ASI program) consists of an high spatial resolution (20 m) imaging spectrometer working in the visible and SWIR bands, to be embarked on future low earth orbit operational satellites. The mission requirements include monitoring of vegetation, coastal/internal waters and geology/hydrology. The instrument works with a swath of 20 Km and steering capability within 500-Km across-track. It operates in about 210 spectral bands of 10 nm of resolution. The objective of the present work is the evaluation of application performances of the HYC camera compared to those of multi- spectral sensors (e.g. ETM+/Landsat 7), carried out by means of images and products simulations. For this scope some airborne campaigns have been performed with hyper- spectral sensors (VIRS, MIVIS) in a test area of Tuscany region (1), with contemporaneous collection of ground/sea truth data. HYC and ETM+ radiance images have been simulated by means of surface reflectance maps obtained from the airborne sensors, applying the MODTRAN atmospheric code and the HYC (and ETM+) instrumental models (spatial, spectral and noise degradation). The retrieval of surface reflectance has been performed by means of an atmospheric correction algorithm based on the dark pixel method. Next, two test products (forest classification and river plumes analysis) have been simulated; the first based on a maximum likelihood classification method and the second based on multivariate regression analysis. The results have been validated with ground truth data for different atmospheric conditions. Classification error decreases from 22% (ETM+) to 13% (HYC), whereas suspended sediments accuracy error decreases from 24% (ETM+) to 15% (HYC) in the tested conditions. The implemented methodology has allowed studying the better trade-off between product accuracy and instrumental requirements.
The necessity for accurate and real time crop monitoring is particularly felt in arid and semiarid environments, because temporal and geographical rainfall variability leads to high interannual variations in primary production and often increases the risk of severe famines. In these cases remotely sensed data, available for wide areas and with high temporal frequency, are an important tool for crop production monitoring and harvest forecasting. In particular, GAC NDVI images derived from the NOAA-AVHRR sensor have already been used for this aim in the Sahelian area of Africa, obtaining good results. In the present paper, a similar approach is tested for the early estimation of cereal crop yield in North African countries. The first results indicate that this estimation is possible especially when stratifying the land surface in ecologically homogeneous zones, identified by supervised or unsupervised clustering techniques.
In the last decades many forest areas are suffering from conventional and new types of damage, with a consequent loss of valuable ecological and economic resources. The monitoring of these damage has therefore become a primary application of satellite remotely sensed data, and particularly of Landsat TM imagery. Unfortunately, conventional mapping methods based on uni or multivariate regressions between ground measurement and remotely sensed spectral information have often led to unsatisfactory results, especially in complex environments where several disturbing factors can affect the forest spectral signatures. It is here proposed that a new, more flexible estimation method based on fuzzy classification of remotely sensed data can offer several advantages when used for this purpose. After a brief description of its basis, the method is applied together with conventional multivariate regression procedures in two case studies in Tuscany (Central Italy) representative of different forest types affected by damages of different origins. The results show that the new method produces higher accuracies in the estimation of forest damage, particularly in areas with complex environmental situations.
Several methods have been proposed for the extraction of latent information from multispectral remotely sensed scenes based on the definition of indices and rotational transformations. A common drawback of these techniques is that they are ultimately based only on statistical relationships among pixel values rather than on physical characteristics of the scenes. Linear pixel unmixing is an alternative method which assumes that the pixel signal is the linear combination of some basic spectral components the fractions of which can be retrieved with good approximation. The method is straightforward and produces results which can be easily interpreted, but presents the problem of the identification of suitable end-members, which generally requires some external knowledge. In order to overcome this problem, in the present research a statistical method is developed for the automatic identification of end-members. This methodology is composed by several steps, that are describe and then applied to a case study with a Landsat 5 TM scene from Central Ethiopia (Africa). The results, evaluated in comparison with those of a more usual principal component transformation, indicate the good performance of the new procedure.
KEYWORDS: Data modeling, Information fusion, Lithium, Landsat, Systems modeling, Process modeling, Agriculture, Earth observing sensors, Raster graphics, Error analysis
This paper presents an application of a methodology for the probabilistic integration of ancillary information into maximum likelihood classifications of remotely sensed data. The methodology is based on the definition of modified prior probabilities from the spectral and ancillary data sets avoiding most of the problems connected with the common uses of priors. A case study was considered concerning two rugged areas in Central Italy covered by 11 main land-use categories. Bitemporal Landsat TM scenes and the three information layers of a Digital Elevation Model (elevation, slope, aspect) were used as spectral and ancillary data. The results show that the integration of the ancillary information was fundamental for the discrimination of some classes which were practically indistinguishable only on the basis of the spectral data. The possible utilisation of the procedure within Land Information Systems is also discussed.
The inclusion of prior probabilities derived from the frequency histograms of the training sets has already been demonstrated to significantly improve the performance of a maximum likelihood classifier. Based on the same principles, a method is presently proposed to integrate the information of ancillary data layers (morphology, pedology, etc.) into the classification process. The statistical basis of this probabilistic approach is first described. A case study is then illustrated concerning a rugged area in Tuscany, (central Italy) sensed by bitemporal Landsat thematic mapper (TM) scenes. Ground references of nine cover categories were collected and digitized together with four ancillary data layers (elevation, slope, aspect, and soils). A maximum likelihood classification with nonparametric priors based only on the TM scenes was first tested, yielding a Kappa accuracy of 0.744. The ancillary data were integrated into the modified classifier, with notable increases in classification accuracy (up to Kappa equals 0.910). It is concluded that the utility of such an approach must be evaluated in relation to the characteristics of the landscape and the satellite imagery considered.
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