We present here a new PSF-shaping technique using biaxial crystals to generate a highly z-dependent distribution in single molecule localization microscopy (SMLM). This distribution features two zeros of intensity that rotate together with defocus. This PSF features similarities to the double-helix introduced by Moerner and Piestun and thus has been dubbed dark-helix since we track zeros of intensity. Preliminary numerical studies based on Cramer-Rao Lower Bound (CRLB) show that this PSF has the potential to obtain up to 20nm localization precision. This PSF can be easily generated by a very simple, monolithic add-on added in front of the detection camera. Additionally, the PSF remains of the approximate size of the Airy PSF, the x-y localization precision is not substantially affected and no trade-off is required. The xy compacity of the PSF also enables theoretically a higher density of emitters than the double-helix which spreads on a larger scale. Limiting factors for SMLM such as loss of photons, complexity and robustness will be discussed and considerations about the practical implementation of such techniques will be given.
Recent developments have shown that conical diffraction by a biaxial crystal can create a vortex beam for use in 2D STED microscopy. It has been shown that this concept can be extended and also generate the depletion distributions used for 3D STED microscopy. A single beam passes through a biaxial crystal that creates two co-propagating, co-localized beams; the first one is used for lateral depletion, and the other one for axial depletion. The two beams are crossed-polarized and thus do not interfere. We will show that the 3D distribution can be made achromatic, i.e. several depletion wavelengths can travel through a common path and still be shaped into the appropriate pattern by optimizing the geometry of the system. This system enables true one-channel 3D depletion at multiple wavelengths ranging from 580nm to 770nm, thus covering most of the conventional depletion wavelengths currently used. Preliminary results of depletion PSFs will be presented and the advantages and limitations of this system will be discussed as well as the experimental considerations required to successfully obtain the desired PSFs.
We present a method for Z-super-localization in fluorescence microscopy, based on conical diffraction. By using a thin biaxial crystal, the Point Spread Function (PSF) shape of an objective is made to depend strongly on the z coordinate. This z dependence is then exploited to localize fluorescent emitters axially with a great precision. We study how this method can be used for single molecule imaging with a global assessment by Fisher information analysis. Preliminary experiments demonstrate that this technique can obtain resolutions of tens of nm with the use of high NA objectives.
We present a new technology for super-resolution fluorescence imaging, based on conical diffraction. Conical
diffraction is a linear, singular phenomenon taking place when a polarized beam is diffracted through a biaxial
crystal. The illumination patterns generated by conical diffraction are more compact than the classical Gaussian
beam; we use them to generate a super-resolution imaging modality. Conical Diffraction Microscopy (CODIM)
resolution enhancement can be achieved with any type of objective on any kind of sample preparation and standard
fluorophores. Conical diffraction can be used in multiple fashion to create new and disruptive technologies
for super-resolution microscopy. This paper will focus on the first one that has been implemented and give a
glimpse at what the future of microscopy using conical diffraction could be.
We discuss the birefringence issues associated with use of crystalline sapphire, with uniaxial crystal structure, as a last
lens element for high-index 193 nm immersion lithography. Sapphire is a credible high-index lens material candidate
because with appropriate orientation and TE polarization the ordinary ray exhibits the required isotropic optical
properties. Also, its material properties may give it higher potential to meet the stringent optical requirements compared
to the potential of the principal candidate materials, cubic-symmetry LuAG and ceramic spinel. The TE polarization
restriction is required anyway for hyper-NA imaging, due to TM-polarization contrast degradation effects. Further, the
high uniaxial-structure birefringence of sapphire may offer the advantage that any residual TM polarization results in a
relatively-uniform flare instead of contrast degradation. One issue with this concept is that spatial-dispersion-induced
effects should cause some index anisotropy of the ordinary rays, in a way similar to the intrinsic birefringence (IBR)
effects in cubic crystals, except that there is no ray splitting. We present the theory of this effect for the trigonal crystal
structure of sapphire and discuss its implications for lithography optics. For this material the spatial-dispersion-induced
effects are characterized by eight material parameters, of which three contribute to index anisotropy of the ordinary
rays. Only one gives rise to azimuthal distortions, and may present challenges for correction. To assess the
consequences of using sapphire as a last element, neglecting any IBR effects, we use lithography simulations to
characterize the lithographic performance for a 1.7 NA design, and compare to that for LuAG.
In this paper, we show that uniaxial crystals and sapphire in particular, can be used as a lens material for high-index
immersion lithography. Although uniaxial crystals are birefringent and anisotropic for unpolarized light, under certain
conditions they are fully isotropic for transverse electric (TE) polarizations. The strong birefringence of the uniaxial
crystal defocuses the residual TM polarization relative to the TE mode so that its image does not reach the photoresist
but rather creates a small background. To manifest this property, a combination of pupil-fill polarization constraints,
mask design rules and crystal alignment requirements must be satisfied. Sapphire is a well-known industrial optical
material featuring high optical quality and homogeneity. Its refractive index of 1.928 at 193 nm, along with its high
thermal conductivity and moderate absorption, are close to industry requirements. An implementation of sapphire under
these conditions is proposed, suggesting a path to the continued scaling of 193 nm lithography numerical aperture.
One of the more challenging applications of optical metrology is real-time dimensional control and surface inspection in industrial applications, where strong requirements of cost, setup, and applicability in adverse environments greatly limit the number of applicable technologies. This work shows an optic profilometer developed specifically for this purpose, the algorithms developed for efficient and accurate distance map calculation, and an example of its use in a harsh steelmaking environment. This device, based on conoscopic holography, is able to obtain a distance profile of a target in a single shot, works at long distance standoff (700 to 1200 mm), and still keeps good resolution (under 0.2 mm) with a very easy and reliable setup. The second part of the work focuses on a real example of this technology applied in an on-line inspection system in steel continuous casting funded by the European Coal and Steel Community, and which is currently working in the Aceralia LDA steelmaking factory in Asturias (Spain). The system is placed in the process line and performs on-line detection of surface defects over hot steel slabs (above 800°C in the inspection point) from a distance of 1200 mm. 100% of the production can be inspected without interfering with the process and without adding any delay.
Based on crystal optics, Conoscopy is a unique implementation of polarized light interference process,. In the basic
interference set-up a light beam is projected onto a diffusive object. The beam creates a light point on a target, which
via reflection disperses the light in all directions. A complete solid angle of the diffused light is analyzed.. The
measurement process corresponds to the retrieval of a distance of the light point from a fmed reference plane. Three
dimensional measurement systems based on Conoscopic Holography are steadily gaining ground against conventional
techniques. Conoscopic system have evolved from an exotic solution to the fist choice for all measurement problems
not covered by triangulation techniques. Currently, they can be utilized on many applications such as quality control
measurements, digitizing, reverse engineering and in-process inspection. A review of Conoscopic Holography principle
will be presented in the first part of the paper. The exclusivity of Conoscopic Holography and its distinction from
commonly used techniques will be reviewed.
One of the more challenging applications of optical metrology is
real-time dimensional control and surface inspection in industrial
applications, where strong requirements of cost, setup and
applicability in adverse environments, greatly limit the number of
applicable technologies. This paper shows an optic profilometer
developed specifically for this purpose. This device, based on
Conoscopic holography, is able to obtain a distance profile of a
target in a single-axis scan; works from long distances and still
keeps good resolution with a very easy and reliable setup. The
first part of the paper introduces the working principles of
Conoscopic holography and shows the sensor set-up. Necessary
algorithms for obtaining the distance information are presented
and the whole process is illustrated with real captures of test
objects. The second part focuses on a real example of this
technology applied in an on-line inspection system in steel
continuous casting funded by the European Committee for Steel and
Carbon, and which is currently working in Aceralia LDA steelmaking
factory in Asturias (Spain). The system is placed in the process
line and performs on-line detection of surface defects over hot
steel slabs from a distance of 1200 mm. 100% of the production
can be inspected without interfering with the process and without
adding any delay.
A new type of three-dimensional measurement systems based on Conoscopic Holography is steadily gaining ground against older techniques. ConoProbe, the point sensor is found today on many applications of Q.C. measurements, digitizing, reverse engineering and in-process inspection. Its precision and capacity to measure many materials and geometries previously poorly measured had convinced many OEM and integrators to switch to this new technology. The ConoLine, line sensor, is aimed mainly to in-line inspection and quality control. Distance measurement is used in some applications of high power lasers as for example for inspection before or after cutting or drilling. The ConoProbe is used for such an application with much benefit for the user. Indeed, one of the main advantages of the ConoProbe is its capacity to view through the lens of the high power laser, either YAG or CO2 and to measure accurately the distance using the laser’s own lens. The collinear geometry removes many artifacts related to triangulation probes. Moreover, by deporting the ConoProbe from the region of the laser lens, up to one or two meters, the user recovers much important space for integration purpose and reduces the need for protection of the ConoProbe.
Optical 3D measurements can provide a fast and non-contact inspection of engineered surfaces. This paper presents the development of a system based on holographic methods and image processing to inspect and classify metallic surfaces for the evaluation of the quality of special machining processes. An ideal example for the investigation of the performance of the system is the surface of cylinder bores. A successful inspection of the complex microstructure of bores can be used to adapt this system to other machining processes.
Modulation of the pit depth of an optical disk can increase its storage density. We measured a linear response to depth over the range of depth of focus using a conoscopic read head.
Conoscopic holography is a method for recording holograms with incoherent light, first presented in 1985. Its applications range from 3D microscopy to 3D satellite imaging and include robotics. The Point Spread Function (PSF) is a Gabor Zone Pattern, which is known to have zeros in Fourier space. We present an experimental technique to obtain an invertible PSF with an experimental image reconstruction, and an original algorithm to find the object shape, validated with both simulations and first experimental results.
We present a hybrid opto-electronic implementation of a neural network. In our system the linear part of
the algorithm (calculation intensive) is performed optically. The non4inear feedback is controlled by a
microcomputer which takes the system output detected using a CD camera, thresholds this output and then
uses the thresholded signal to commtnd the spatial light modulator which provides the input to the optical
part of the system.
One of the major advantages of optics in this type of architecture is its ability to work in parallel on
two•dimensional data structures. However, a four-dimensional synaptic matrix is required to stoie the
connections between two images. We recall and explain the Frequency Multiplexed Raster (FMR) coding
scheme we have developed to enable us to store this four..dimensional array on a planar component (CGH).
In addition we present some modifications to the basic synaptic matrix algorithm which improve its
performance with correlated images. Finally, after presenting some first experimental results we extend the
FMR coding scheme for use in generalized optical interconnections.
The principle and the firstresults of a new 3D camera will be presented. This camera is based on a holographic technique
named conoscopic holography. The simplicity of the technique, using only a crystal, waves plates and polarizers, and its
compatibility with CCD sensors make possible the fabrication of low cost and flexible conoscopic vision systems. The
first prototype is an tive rangefmder which will be developed into a profilometer and a 3D camera a resolution of 1 jnn
and a precision of a 2-3 jim have already been obtained. The numerical processing is based on Fourier Transforms, quickly
performed by available dedicied hardware.
Two dimensional jmuem recognition related tasks require the introduction of invariant recognition ftors such as
shift, rotation, scale and deformation. In a preliminary work' we showed the inherent capability of our FMR coding to
perform shift-invariant retrieval. This capability is essential for other invariances which can be transformed into
translated representations.
In this paper we propose using this translation invariant coding in a general scheme, whereby a we-processor
handles the invariance issues and aligns the input probe to a fixed baseline utilized by the recognition mechanism. This
higher order layer includes S "validation switches", each switch corresponding to a position index of translated objects.
A validation switch will be eon" f the stimulus matches one of the objects, translated to the position handled by this
switch. These switches condition the search, and where a search is needed, they supply the required transformation for
stimulus alignment. Several proximity measures, needed for the realization of these switches, are presented and
compared, in the context of different weight prescription algorithms.
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