While agile multispectral imaging solutions presently exist, their size, weight and power (SWaP) specifications prevents deployment on small portable platforms such as drones. As much of the size and weight of existing solutions is attributed to the wavelength-selective optical subsystem, realizing low-SWaP hinges on miniaturization of this subsystem. The ultimate multispectral imaging implementation would integrate the wavelength-selective component at the imaging focal plane array. This paper presents a solution which aims to achieve such integration. Recent developments in Microelectromechanical Systems (MEMS) have realized a surface-micromachined optical tunable filter, operating in the shortwave infrared wavelength band (SWIR: 1 μm – 2.6 μm) for applications in miniature optical spectrometers. The tunable filter is a Fabry-Perot (FP) structure, composed of a fixed dielectric mirror on a silicon substrate, and a movable dielectric mirror suspended above. The separation (air gap) between these two mirrors defines the optical transmission centre-wavelength of this Fabry Perot structure. Consequently, electrostatic actuation of the top mirror towards the bottom mirror allows the gap, and thus the transmission centre-wavelength, to be controlled. This paper presents work towards integration of such a MEMS tunable filter technology directly on an infrared focal plan array. Realizing this integration relies on: (1) expanding the optical area of the MEMS Fabry Perot structure to cover a significant portion of the two-dimensional focal plan array, which is generally multi-millimetre in each of its two dimensions; and (2) devising a structure that will allow actuation of the MEMS filter with under 20 V.
The Microelectronics Research Group (MRG) at The University of Western Australia is a key partner of the Australian Research Council Centre of Excellence for Transformative Meta-Optical Systems. In this presentation, an overview of ongoing research will be given with an emphasis on the flagship research activities of MCT-based imaging arrays and Microelectromechanical Systems (MEMS). The MCT research and development utilise a vertically integrated capability from semiconductor material growth, through device modelling and design, to focal-plane-array fabrication and packaging. In support of the detector array capability, fully integrated MEMS technology can be used to further enhance the sensor device performance through the focal plane integration of tunable filters for spectral classification and infrared spectroscopy. The combination of high-performance detector designs and tunable spectral filters provides a major differentiator for military imaging systems, particularly for those operating in complex and degraded environments. This talk will highlight several research activities that are highly relevant to defence applications including metamaterial enhanced infrared detectors, and the fabrication of infra-red focal plane arrays on flexible substrates. For the MEMS technology, both wideband and narrowband tunable spectral filters will be discussed for multispectral imaging in the SWIR, MWIR and LWIR bands, and for hyperspectral imaging and spectroscopy. Considerations on future research activities and technology trends will be presented including opportunities for the rapid development of high-performance and spectrally adaptive low SWaP sensing systems for enhanced detection and discrimination of partially concealed or camouflaged targets in cluttered backgrounds.
The Microelectronics Research Group (MRG) at UWA has been developing its capabilities in the field of infrared materials and devices since 1989 and is the only HgCdTe research centre in Australia. In this paper, we report on the various HgCdTe based technologies being researched at UWA to enhance their capabilities for demanding applications such as heteroepitaxy-enabled low-cost, large array size, and high-performance HgCdTe IR FPAs, and ultra-high Quantum Efficiency (QE) HgCdTe detectors for squeezed-light applications.
Type-II superlattice (T2SL) based semiconductors have emerged as a rival to well-established HgCdTe-based IR detectors, promising comparable performance at significantly lower cost. T2SLs are complex nanostructures that exhibit multiple-carrier and highly-anisotropic electronic transport properties, which renders them exceedingly challenging to study experimentally. The lack of reliable experimental data has limited optimisation and modelling efforts, and thus hampered progress. This paper will present a systematic experimental study of electronic transport in InAs/InGaSb T2SLs, by employing world-leading mobility spectrum techniques developed at UWA and state-of-the art T2SL structures from three leading research groups developing infrared detector technologies based on T2SLs.
High performance infrared (IR) sensing and imaging systems require IR optoelectronic detectors that have a high signal-to-noise ratio (SNR) and a fast response time, and that can be readily hybridised to CMOS read-out integrated circuits (ROICs). From a device point of view, this translates to p-n junction photovoltaic detectors based on narrow bandgap semiconductors with a high quantum efficiency (signal) and low dark current (noise). These requirements limit the choice of possible semiconductors to those having an appropriate bandgap that matches the wavelength band of interest combined with a high optical absorption coefficient and a long minority carrier diffusion length, which corresponds to a large mobility-lifetime product for photogenerated minority carriers. Technological constraints and modern clean-room fabrication processes necessitate that IR detector technologies are generally based on thin-film narrow bandgap semiconductors that have been epitaxially grown on lattice-matched wider bandgap IR-transparent substrates. The basic semiconductor material properties have led to InGaAs (in the SWIR up to 1.7 microns), InSb (in the MWIR up to 5 microns), and HgCdTe (in the eSWIR, MWIR and LWIR wavelength bands) being the dominant IR detector technologies for high performance applications. In this paper, the current technological limitations of HgCdTe-based technologies will be discussed with a view towards developing future pathways for the development of next-generation IR imaging arrays having the features of larger imaging array format and smaller pixel pitch, higher pixel yield and operability, higher quantum efficiency (QE), higher operating temperature (HOT), and dramatically lower per-unit cost.
The highly Be-doped InAs layer has been grown on semi-insulating GaAs (100) substrate by Molecular Beam Epitaxy. Very good quality of the layer has been attested by high resolution scanning electron microscope (HR-SEM), X-ray diffraction (XRD) and the Raman spectra. The parallel and perpendicular residual strain are determined to be – 1.17 × 10-3 , and 1.12 × 10-3 , respectively. Moreover, the absorbance (ABS) and photoluminescence (PL) spectra were collected in order to estimate the bandgap narrowing. The 10 meV bandgap shrinking for 1.7×1018 cm-3 acceptor concentration suggests necessity of reexamining the Jain et al model [Jain, S. C., et al. - JAP 68(7): 3747-3749] in the context of actual values of InAs valence-bands effective-masses.
The preliminary results of quantitative mobility spectrum analysis of highly iodine-doped Hg0,685Cd0,315Te and arsenicdoped Hg0,827Cd0,173Te for the 5 – 300 K temperature range have been presented. Electron mobilities for the samples made by metalorganic chemical vapor deposition technique have been compared with the available literature data.
HgCdTe has dominated the high performance end of the IR detector market for decades. At present, the fabrication costs
of HgCdTe based advanced infrared devices is relatively high, due to the low yield associated with lattice matched
CdZnTe substrates and a complicated cooling system. One approach to ease this problem is to use a cost effective
alternative substrate, such as Si or GaAs. Recently, GaSb has emerged as a new alternative with better lattice matching.
In addition, implementation of MBE-grown unipolar n-type/barrier/n-type detector structures in the HgCdTe material
system has been recently proposed and studied intensively to enhance the detector operating temperature. The unipolar
nBn photodetector structure can be used to substantially reduce dark current and noise without impeding photocurrent
flow. In this paper, recent progress in MBE growth of HgCdTe infrared material at the University of Western Australia
(UWA) is reported, including MBE growth of HgCdTe on GaSb alternative substrates and growth of HgCdTe nBn
structures.
Electronic transport parameters in a nominally P+/π/P+ InAs/GaSb type-II superlattice vertical photoconductor
structure for long-wavelength infrared detectors have been characterized employing magnetic field dependent
resistivity and Hall-effect measurements, and high-resolution mobility spectrum analysis. Carrier transport parameters
from both the P+ and nominally π regions were obtained over the 80 to 300K temperature range. At
300 K, the minority carrier electrons in the nominally π region was found to be characterized by a mobility and
concentration of 11,000 cm2/Vs and 1.1×1017 cm-3, respectively. Taking into account our previously reported
room-temperature vertical electron transport parameters,1 the vertical to lateral mobility and carrier concentration
ratios have been determined to be 0.19 and 5.5×10-4 , respectively. A miniband energy gap of 192±8 meV
was estimated from the thermal activation of the minority carrier electrons in the lightly doped InAs/GaSb
superlattice region.
In this work, we report on the measurement of vertical transport parameters in p-doped InAs/GaSb type-II
superlattices for long-wavelength infrared detectors. Variable magnetic eld geometrical magnetoresistance mea-
surements have been employed to extract the vertical transport parameters, since the Hall-eect technique cannot
be employed in the vertical transport conguration. The room-temperature magnetoresistance measurements
were performed employing a kelvin-mode set up, at electric elds not exceeding 25 V/cm and at magnetic eld
intensities up to 12 T. The measured magnetoresistance, shown to exhibit multiple-carrier conduction charac-
teristics, were analyzed using a high-resolution mobility spectrum analysis technique. It is shown that, at room
temperature, the electrical conductivity of the sample is due to four distinct carriers, associated with the major-
ity carrier holes, sidewall inversion layer electrons, and two minority carrier electrons likely associated with two
distinct conduction band levels.
This paper will detail investigations into rapid thermal annealing (RTA) treatment of ohmic contacts to reactive ion etch (RIE) damaged p-type GaN. It was found that annealing at moderate temperatures in N2 atmosphere can improve the ohmic nature of contacts to RIE-damaged p-GaN. After chlorine-based RIE treatment of the p-GaN surface the sheet resistance and contact resistivity of the ohmic contact metallisation scheme increased, and the contacts became extremely non-ohmic. After RTA treatment in N2 atmosphere at 550°C, linearity of the I-V curves was substantially improved, and the contact resistivity decreased. This improvement is most likely related to improvements in the metal-GaN interface and/or improvements in the bulk material when protected by the contact metal. Unprotected surfaces were further damaged (manifested as higher sheet resistance) by the annealing procedure.
The effect of 60Co gamma-irradiation on the device characteristics of Al0.35Ga0.65N-GaN heterojunction field effect transistors (HFET) has been investigated using DC and geometrical magnetoresistance measurements. Cumulative gamma-ray doses up to 20 Mrad(Si) are shown to induce drain current degradation, negative threshold voltage shifts and reverse gate leakage current degradation. Analysis of drain magneto-conductance characteristics measured at 80 K indicated an increase in two-dimensional electron gas (2DEG) sheet concentration with accumulated radiation dose. More importantly, the 2DEG mobility-concentration characteristics are noted to remain aproximately constant for total gamma-radiation doses up to 20 Mrad(Si), indicating that the areal density of radiation-induced defects at the heterointerface is likely to be negligible. The threshold voltage shifts are therefore attributable to the introduction of relatively shallow radiation-induced defects in the AlGaN barrier region and/or to defects introduced at the gate-barrier interface. Although the drain conductance characteristics manifested similar degradation trends at 80 and 300 K, the 2DEG parameters obtained at 300 K exhibited significant scatter with increasing dose, possibly a manifestation of device instabilities induced by radiation-induced surface defects in the ungated access region near the edge of the gate. Device failure due to severe gate leakage and loss of gate control over the 2DEG charge, occurred after a total dose of 30 Mrad(Si).
In this paper, we report transient capacitance measurements performed on MOCVD-grown nominally undoped n-GaN Schottky diodes exposed to 60Co gamma irradiation. Three radiation-induced defect levels are identifiable at an accumulated dose of 21 Mrad(Si) with thermal activation energies of 88+/- 7 meV, 104+/- 12 meV and 144+/- 13 meV, produced at a rate of 2.2x10-3 cm-1 per 1.25 MeV photon. The isochronal annealing behavior of these defects indicates that they are of similar nature, stable at temperatures < 100 C and disappear for annealing temperatures > 350 C. The carrier emission and annealing characteristics of these defects are consistent with previously identified nitrogen-vacancy related defects. Three deep-level defects present before irradiation exposure with activation energies of 254, 363 and 586 meV were found to remain unaffected for cumulative gamma-ray doses up to 21 Mrad(Si).
This paper reports the observation of defect-related anomalous low temperature drain current-voltage characteristics in AlGaN/GaN MODFETs. We have performed our study on devices with a relatively large number of lattice defects, generally referred to as nanopipes, in their active area. The observed low temperature anomalies appear as 'kinks' in the Ids-Vds characteristics and are observable at temperatures < 210 K. In a device with a large density of defects, we observe current collapse and large threshold voltage shifts at 80 K, which depend on bias history. We attribute the observed behavior to impact ionization of charge accumulated in the AlGaN layer by high- energy electrons injected from the 2DEG via real space transfer. The existence of these mechanisms indicates that device self-heating is not the solely responsible for the negative differential resistance at high electric fields in AlGaN/GaN MODFETs. These mechanisms may have significant influence on the high frequency performance of power transistors and on our current understanding of high electric field parallel transport phenomena in III-nitride heterojunctions.
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