A high accuracy surface inspection system for testing polished surfaces is based on a Fabry-Perot resonator. The
inspected surface serves as a relay mirror in a cat-eye retroreflector incorporated into the resonating cavity, which makes
the optical configuration insensitive to surface tilts. The laser wavelength is swept periodically over a given range, and
the local surface height is obtained by timing the resonance occurrence during each sweep. An additional highly stable
reference Fabry-Perot interferometer using the same laser is employed for obtaining differential measurements, yielding
absolute height values, distinguishing between up and down defects. Due to the finesse of the multi-beam Fabry Perot
interferometer relative to the two-beam Michelson interferometer response function, the height sensitivity is greatly
enhanced. In order to detect small contamination particles, the interferometer was supplemented by a scattering detection
channel integrated into the same compact optical head. The combination of the bright-field interferometric signal,
yielding both the phase (surface height) and amplitude (surface reflectivity), and the dark-field scattering channel, allows
one to build a sensitive and reliable defect detection and classification procedure. The interferometer was incorporated
into high-speed high-accuracy in-line machines for inspection of the surfaces in data storage applications. With a 0.2
Angstroms resolution, the height rms repeatability at a surface scanning speed of 40 m/s is 1.5 Angstroms.
In earlier publications, it was shown that scanning of surfaces by dark beams can be exploited for sub-wavelength feature analysis. In this work, we present vector simulations based in Rigorous Coupled-Wave Analysis with the purpose to estimate the expected resolution of the method, both lateral (feature size) and axial (height). The dark beam used in this study has a line singularity generated by a π-phase step positioned in a Gaussian beam. Various combinations of the illumination and detection nuFmerical apertures (from NA=0.2 to NA=0.8) and different surface features were studied. Polarization effects which become significant at high numerical apetures, were considered as an additional source of information for the analysis. In the case of a sub-wavelength feature on an ideal surface, the resolution of the method is limited only by the electronics noise. In particular, under a reasonable assumption of a 105 signal to noise ratio, it is possible to detect a 0.2 nm step.
Surface feature evaluation with resolution beyond the classical diffraction limit can be achieved by a combined space--frequency representation of the scattered field. This was demonstrated in a measuring procedure where the surface was consecutively illuminated by a collection of focused beams and the diffracted data was measured in the far field. Mathematically, if the focused beam has a Gaussian profile, the optical system implements a Gabor transform. Other transformations, such as wavelet transforms can be obtained by properly structuring the illuminating beam. This work presents an approach where structured beams at several wavelengths are used. This additional information gathered by this procedure allows an increased resolution and the reduction of ambiguities that may occur in the analysis of single wavelength measurements.
Reliable in-line and in-situ measurement of structure of highly polished surfaces remains a major challenge for the modern industry. Evaluation of the wavefront of a scanning laser beam reflected from a surface allows one to establish a direct correlation between the statistics of the optical signal and the surface roughness. Phase structuring of the laser beam greatly increases the height sensitivity down to the nanometer level. High sampling rate allows one to collect a very large number of sampled data and provide a complete analysis of the surface structure rather than a single parameter such as the rms roughness.
This paper describes the approach applied at the Technion to investigate the aero-optical effect in supersonic flow conditions. This approach consists of a numerical analysis of the problem (global/local/parametric) accompanied by an experimental effort. The experimental effort ranges from the flow-field structure visualization (shocks, shear and boundary layers, etc.) to optical measurements of gas density gradient distributions along a diagnostic optical beam. Measurements of flow parameters, such as pressure and temperature are being carried for the purpose of validation and calibration of the numerical calculations. The next stage of the experiments will include direct optical distortion measurements. The above mentioned approach aims at supplying concise information for understanding the mechanisms of the aero-optical effects. It and allows future development of prediction and correction methods, in order to modify the acquired optical information.
A novel optical diagnostic technique, namely, a dual hologram shearing interferometry with regulated sensitivity, is proposed for visualization and measuring the density gradients of compressible flows in wind tunnels. It has advantages over conventional shearing interferometry in both accuracy and sensitivity. The method is especially useful for strong turbulent or unsteady regions of the flows including shock flows. The interferometer proved to be insensitive to mechanical vibrations and allowed to record holograms during the noisy wind tunnel run. The proposed approach was demonstrated by its application to a supersonic flow over spherically blunted and sharp nose cone/cylinder models. It is believed that the technique will become an effective tool for receiving optical data in many flow facilities.
A novel optical diagnostic technique,namely, a dual hologram shearing interferometry with regulated sensitivity, is proposed for visualization and measuring the density gradients of compressible flows in wind tunnels. It has advantages over conventional shearing interferometry in both accuracy and sensitivity. The method is especially useful for strong turbulent or unsteady regions of the flows including shock flows. The interferometer proved to be insensitive to mechanical vibrations and allowed to record holograms during the noisy wind tunnel run. The proposed approach was demonstrated by its application to a supersonic flow over spherically blunted and sharp nose cone/cylinder models. It is believed that the technique will become an effective tool for receiving optical data in many flow facilities.
A new ellipsometric configuration suitable for in-situ studying of fast processes is proposed. This configuration eliminates the use of mechanically the use of mechanically rotating components. The light beam from a Zeeman laser is directed to a sample. The reflected light passes through two subsequent Brewster prisms and a polarizer. The plane of incidence of the first Brewster prism is perpendicular to the sample and to the incidence plane of the second Brewster prism. The intensities of the beams reflected from the prisms are proportional to the amplitudes of s- and p-total reflection coefficients of the sample, and the intensity of the beam transmitted through both the prisms and the polarizer contains information on their phase difference. The light from a Zeeman laser emerges as linearly polarized light whose plane of polarization rotates with the frequency of 1.2 MHz, therefore the signal on the detectors contains DC and AC components. The ellipsometric angle (Psi) is obtained from the ratio of the amplitudes of the AC signals from two detectors, whereas the ellipsometric angle (Delta) is obtained from a third detector. This ellipsometric system is fully automatic and free of any moving parts. The ellipsometer has a time resolution of approximately 1 microsecond(s) ec, and is not sensitive to low frequency noise. Theoretical calculations based on Jones matrix approach are presented as well as experimental results for a SiO2 layer on Si.
This paper describes a series of promising optical diagnostic techniques to provide a comprehensive acquisition of the optical information from various flow fields under investigation. A simultaneous application of the two or even several diagnostic techniques which combines a CFD code calculations yield more accurate measurements of the density and/or the density gradient distributions in complex flow fields. Traditionally qualitative data of the density gradient in a high speed compressible flow have been obtained by schlierengraphy. A white light source and a laser two optical arms schlieren optical schemes were constructed on the base of a conventional schlieren system. The optical image of a model was focused on a photo film and projected on a screen. A CCD- camera was used to catch the focused image in real time, to display it on a control monitor and to record it on a video tape recorder. An acoustically stable holographic variable shear interferometer, which has been easily constructed on the base of the conventional schlieren system allowed to record a signal hologram during the wind tunnel run by using a continuous wave laser light source. Signal and comparison holograms have then been post-processed by the dual hologram technique to display shearing interferograms. A holographic Moire deflectometry method is presented. The holographic recording provides a 'freezing' of the distorted signal wave on a hologram to analyze it a posteriori by the Moire technique. A novel holographic Moire interferometer is described and its application to testing a small size axisymmetric supersonic air jet is shown. An interference method with enhanced sensitivity and compensating for optical aberrations, which is based on rerecording holograms is briefly described. It would provide a reliable acquisition of the phase information from wide range of weak phase objects including high speed low density flow fields. The method has been demonstrated by mapping the density field of the supersonic air jet as a representative weak phase object. The numerical analysis of a 2-D flow field was also carried out by means of computational fluid dynamics (CFD) methods.
The method of Black BeamR Interferometry, which was developed for inspection of glass substrates in LCD manufacturing, is extended in order to achieve a detailed description and classification of defects and other features on the surface under inspection. With a properly arranged detection system, not only a high defect detectability is provided, but also the ability to discriminate between the up or down defects (bumps or pits) in addition to the possibility of measuring the defect geometry (for large defects or structures) and the equivalent defect volume. The method is described and the results of simulations and experiments are presented.
Optical thin film multilayer systems at oblique angles of incidence exhibit polarization effects because of the differences between the reflectances, transmittances, and phase shifts of the p and s states of polarization. It is shown that a thin film system is equivalent to a combination of two polarization elements, a dichroic linear polarizer and a retarder; thus, it offers the possibility of controlling the polarization states in different optical systems. The representation of thin film polarizers in the Jones calculus is given and three applications are introduced and discussed. Two of the applications are for conserving the polarization state in corner cube retroreflectors for high-power laser cavity at 1065 nm and in a penta-roof prism for long-range high-quality telescope. The last example is implemented for a divider-combiner element in bidirectional fringe-counting interferometry where the phase shifts and intensities for both states of polarization (p and s) are controlled.
Genetic algorithms, developed by J. H. Holland, are randomized search algorithms which mimic the mechanics of natural selection and natural genetics. In this work a genetic algorithm was applied to optimization of sophisticated thin-film systems. It was found to be an efficient tool rapidly converging to the target as defined by the merit function. The algorithm is introduced, discussed, and illustrated for two applications: a polarization-preserving coating of a penta-roof prism for a long-grange optical sight and a phase light splitter--beam divider/combiner for bi-directional fringe-counting interferometers.
A feasibility study of an active 3-D terrain mapping system for helicopter landings is presented. The system acquires the 3-D shape of the terrain beneath the helicopter by scanning the terrain with a laser beam and imaging the illuminated spot by two position-sensing devices. The measurement accuracy of the system is assessed, and a Kalman filter for accuracy improvement is devised. The acquired terrain shape is displayed continuously to the pilot on a perspective display, showing both the terrain shape and helicopter spatial position.
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