Diagnostic modalities that determine the extent of damage to peripheral nerve tissues that can happen in the case of burn injuries and skin cancer are significant for optical imaging. Optical coherence tomography (OCT) is a well-established imaging tool for ophthalmology, skin diseases and dental applications. Recently, the polarized optical coherence tomography (PS-OCT) technique has been used for nerve tissue imaging in ophthalmology. This technique involves slow and fast axis, which gives the phase retardation depending upon the birefringence of a the target material and provides information about tissue characteristics and thickness. Skin, dental tissue, and nerve tissue layers also show birefringence characteristics. In the present study, the imaging of the nerve tissues by the PS-OCT technique is proposed and demonstrated. Initially, the birefringence characteristics of a chicken nerve tissue were studied using a polarized light source with a wavelength of 532 nm and measuring the transmission characteristic through a rotating analyzer. The widening of the output intensity peak clearly indicated the birefringent nature of the nerve fiber. The PS-OCT setup was built using a polarizing beam splitter and quarter-wave plates. A superluminescent diode (SLD) with a wavelength of 1300 nm was used to image birefringent and non-birefringent samples along with the nerve tissue by PS-OCT setup. The spectral information of both polarization states confirmed the birefringence characteristics of the nerve tissue. Further studies are planned for nerve tissue imaging in a near-infrared region using a supercontinuum light source with a wavelength of around 1060 nm to increase the penetration depth during measurements.
Marine biofouling refers to the undesirable growth and adhesion of marine organisms such as barnacles, macro-algae, microbial slimes etc. on immersed structures. Tropical ocean environment teems with microorganisms, of which some adhere, both to the static ship hull and while en-route to the destination increasing roughness. A laboratory-scale LIBS technique was used to analyse biofouling samples and its constituent common water-borne algae and bacterial species. Biofouling composition was determined by collecting samples from marine structures and vessels and analysing them in laboratories. Biofouling characterization tests were also done such as SEM analysis. The Quanta 200 FEG Scanning Electron Microscope (SEM) was used for obtaining the SEM images. The structure of quartz crystal in the biofouling samples was also determined.
Micro-scale removal of Cu from a dielectric substrate has applications in microelectronics, patch antenna fabrication and frequency selective surface (FSS) manufacturing. Pulsed laser-based micro-scribing of Copper (Cu) from a dielectric is a preferred technique to avoid the adverse effects of chemical etching, such as toxicity and corrosive nature of the etchant, difficulty in fabrication of mask etc. However, pulsed laser-assisted removal of Cu from a dielectric in the air will produce recast layer/ redeposit, oxide layer near the ablation zone and thermal damage to the dielectric is another challenge. In this study, a hybrid technique with nanosecond laser-activated electrochemical micro-scribing of Cu is demonstrated. The technique was extended to remove 35 μm Cu from Rogers-RO4003 dielectric with a thickness ≈0.75 mm to fabricate FSS samples in X-band. The Cu-deposited dielectric substrate was immersed in Sodium Chloride (NaCl) solution, the laser beam was directed through a negatively biased tool electrode and the sample was biased positively. In this hybrid technique, along with laser-assisted material removal, laser-activated electrochemical etching also removed Cu selectively. The laser irradiation coupled with the NaCl solution induced preferential micro-etching, resulting in improved surface morphology without re-deposition and recast layer and thermal protection to the dielectric substrate. The FSS sample produced with the laser-hybrid micro-scribing was working at 10.3 GHz.
The Laser-Induced Breakdown Spectroscopy (LIBS) technique has been utilized in several studies for the identification of pathogenic bacterial strains based on their characteristic spectral fingerprint. Currently used LIBS techniques for discrimination of bacterial strains belonging to the same species require sophisticated methodology and expensive instrumentation. In this study, we present the strategies adopted to achieve this goal using a low-cost LIBS methodology. Time-resolved LIBS experiments were carried out using a nanosecond pulsed Nd: YAG laser (1064 nm, 6 ns, 10 Hz) for ablating the bacterial samples, and the resulting emission spectra were recorded using a portable and non-intensified Charge Coupled Device (CCD) detector. The bacterial strains used for this study were two clinical isolates of Escherichia coli (E. coli) - a pathogen causing severe infections in humans. The individual bacterial strains were cultured using a standard optimized protocol, and their respective chemical fingerprints were captured using the LIBS technique. We also investigate the efficacy of standardizing the growth environment and its role in modulating the chemical composition of the bacterial strains. A bacterial growth study was performed to assess the influence of regulating growth environment (concentration of sodium and potassium in the nutrient media), on the growth phases of the two bacterial strains. The spectral lines corresponding to sodium (589.5 nm), and potassium (766.5 nm, 769.9 nm) were found to be significant among the characteristic LIBS emission of the bacterial strains. The sodium to potassium ratio (Na/K), calculated from the elemental line intensities in the LIBS spectrum of bacteria, was found to be a highly significant feature for discrimination of bacterial strains with a classification accuracy >90%.
We have demonstrated the fabrication of semiconductor microspherical crystals such as ZnO and Si microspheres by a simple laser ablation technique. In addition, doped and alloyed microspheres have achieved by this technique. The fabrication mechanism of the spherical crystals is based on instantaneous heating of target material, formation of spherical shape by surface tension of liquid-state material, and rapid freezing with keeping the spherical shape. In this study, the technique is expanded to other various materials, and microspheres consisting of multicomponent semiconductor such as Sr3Sn2O7 was successfully fabricated. This technique is a candidate for fabrication of functional microspherical crystals.
Identification of microorganisms using Laser Induced Breakdown Spectroscopy (LIBS) is currently an experimental technique in the early development stage. The highly expensive and complex instrumentation involved in this technique is a severe limitation to its translation into a commercial diagnostic device. In this study, we have investigated the efficacy of using low cost, non-intensified and portable CCD spectrometer systems for identification and discrimination of microorganisms, such as species of gram-positive (Staphylococcus aureus) and gram-negative bacteria (Escherichia coli and Klebsiella pneumoniae) using their spectral fingerprint. Comparison of the resulting emission spectra from these detectors, on ablation using nanosecond pulsed Nd: YAG (1064 nm) laser source has been carried out. We have established the efficiency of classification for discrimination between gram-positive and gram-negative bacteria and also between 2 different species of gram negative bacteria. We also present the results of ablation of the microbial smears on several organic as well as inorganic substrates and their relative efficiency in identification of the microbial species. The results indicate the feasibility of porting this technique onto a PDMS (Polydimethylsiloxane) or paper based microfluidic point of care device which can eliminate the complex sample preparation steps required currently. This study has huge potential for the development of a low-cost commercial LIBS based microfluidic device for detection of microorganisms.
We have succeeded in synthesizing zinc oxide (ZnO) microspherical crystals and Silicon microspheres by a simple laser ablation technique in air, and demonstrated whispering-gallery-mode (WGM) lasing from optically-pumped ZnO microsphere. ZnO/MgO alloy microspheres were also successfully fabricated, and blue-shift of WGM lasing wavelength was achieved. Recently, size-controlled and on-demand fabrication of semiconductor microspheres by introducing of an optical vortex beam.
Recently, there is an increasing interest to create micro-channels on metal thin films for diverse applications, such as biomedical, micro channel heat exchangers, chemical separation processes and microwave antenna. Nanosecond (ns) Nd3+:YAG laser has been studied for generating micro-channels on Cu thin film (35 μm) deposited on polyimide substrate (50 μm). A pulsed Nd3+:YAG laser (532 nm / 355 nm) based scribing was performed in air and water ambiancePlasma shielding phenomenon is observed to influence the depth of microchannel at higher energies. A novel pump-probe experiment has been conducted for verifying the plasma shielding effect in air. In underwater scribing the recast layer was reduced significantly as compared to that in air. Laser scribing of Cu thin film followed by chemical etching using FeCl3 was studied. However, the approach of chemical etching resulted in undercut and thinning of Cu film. Alternatively, laser material processing in NaCl solution was studied. Cl− ions present in the solution reacts with Cu which is removed from the sample via laser ablation and forms CuCl2. Formation of CuCl2 in turn improved the surface morphology of the channel through localized etching. The surface roughness parameter Ra was less than 400 nm for NaCl solution based scribing which is smaller compared to air and underwater based methods which are typically around 800 nm or above. Preliminary studies using femtosecond (fs) laser based Cu scribing in air with the fluence of 0.5 J/cm2 resulted in a crated depth of 3 μm without any recast layer.
We report the synthesis of transition metal doped (TM) ZnO micropsheres using doped ZnO sintered targets containing Mn 1% dopant. Transition metals are prospective materials for p type acceptor doping in ZnO. Structural and morphology study were conducted using XRD (X-ray diffraction), SEM and Raman spectroscopy. Room temperature Photoluminescence (PL) spectra of the fabricated ZnO microspheres were measured, at an excitation wavelength of 355 nm. In our study, smooth spherical shaped micro particles with different diameters ranging from ~1 to 3 μm were grown in different substrates by using a pulsed N 3+: YAG laser. SEM (Scanning Electron Microscopy) images show the presence of uniform smooth surfaced spheres. Raman scattering measurements from the synthesised samples at 532 nm wavelength excitation provide confirms the wurtzite structure of the fabricated undoped and TM doped ZnO microsphere. The doped microspheres exhibited UV whispering gallery modes (WGM) cavity lasing by optical pumping. Magnetic measurements from TM doped ZnO microparticles using vibrating sample magnetometer (VSM) are in progress.
A novel gas sensing system based on a tunable fiber Bragg grating (FBG) and a Super luminescent light emitting diode (SLED) source is proposed for trace gas sensing. Such a system has been demonstrated for precise detection of acetylene (C2H2) using wavelength modulation spectroscopy technique (WMS) based on modulating the Bragg wavelength of FBG within the width of an absorption line of a target gas. The sensing system has been calibrated against specific gas concentrations (ppm) through controlled experiments and the minimum detectable acetylene (C2H2) gas concentration is experimentally found to be ~ 80 ppm (0.008% by volume). Furthermore, the detection limit of the system is estimated to be limited by the noise floor of our system at ~ 7 ppm (0.0007% by volume). The proposed system provides a relatively inexpensive alternative for trace gas sensing based on a well-established FBG technology. Moreover, the proposed system has tremendous potential for simultaneous detection of multiple species through the use of a cascaded set of carefully chosen FBGs.
The influence of the laser beam profile on simultaneous wide-area crystallization and texturing of amorphous silicon (a-Si) thin films in water ambience is investigated by using a pulsed laser-beam-overlap technique. A Q-switched Nd3+:YAG laser with the second harmonic wavelength of 532 nm and different beam profiles, namely Gaussian and flat-top, was used for the annealing of 1-μm thick a-Si films deposited on crystalline silicon (c-Si) substrates. High density and smaller-sized conical spikes with an increase in grain size of around 25% and improved photoconductivity characteristics (9% to 17%) were observed after laser treatment was carried out in water when compared with that in air. Further, crystalline characteristics were also improved with the flat-top beam profile as compared with that of the Gaussian beam profile. The necessary laser fluence range based on the thermal modeling in the underwater ambience is in good agreement with the experimentally measured values between 150 and 600 mJ/cm2. The improvement in morphological, crystalline, and electrical characteristics of a-Si films clearly show that underwater annealing and texturing with the Nd3+:YAG laser beam-overlap of 30% to 50% is suitable for photovoltaic applications.
Evenly spaced conductive grids of copper and aluminum thin films on polyimide substrate are used for parabolic reflector antennas aboard telecommunications satellites. Laser microscribing of thin films using a flat-top and Gaussian laser beam profile is analyzed with 95% overlapping of the diameter of the laser spot. Laser scribing is performed using the Q-switched Nd3+: YAG (355, 532 nm) laser. The influence of laser irradiation and beam shape on the scribed microchannel width, depth, and surface characteristics is experimentally analyzed using a noncontact optical profilometer and scanning electron microscope (SEM). Laser scribing using a flat-top profile produced near rectangular microchannels in copper thin films. Using the Gaussian profile, the probability of melting is greater than vaporization as observed using SEM images; this melt pool plays a prominent role in resolidification at the edges. The depth of the scribe channel is observed to be 20% higher for the 532-nm wavelength compared to the 355-nm wavelength. The effect of different environments such as air, water, and vacuum on the channel depth and quality is reported. The response of aluminum and copper thin films for high fluences is also studied. Thermal modeling of the laser-material interaction has been attempted by assuming the plasma electron temperature as the laser ablation temperature for modeling the recession rate and depth for a single laser pulse. Model results agree with experimental data showing greater depth for 532 nm compared to 355 nm.
This work presents a combination of differential absorption technique and frequency domain optical coherence tomography for detection of glucose, which is an important analyte in medical diagnosis of diabetes. Differential absorption technique is used to detect glucose selectively in the presence of interfering species especially water and frequency domain optical coherence tomography (FDOCT) helps to obtain faster acquisition of depth information. Two broadband super-luminescent diode (SLED) sources with centre wavelengths 1586 nm (wavelength range of 1540 to 1640 nm) and 1312 nm (wavelength range of 1240 to 1380 nm) and a spectral width of ≈ 60 nm (FWHM) are used. Preliminary studies on absorption spectroscopy using various concentrations of aqueous glucose solution gave promising results to distinguish the absorption characteristics of glucose at two wavelengths 1310 nm (outside the absorption band of glucose) and 1625 nm (within the absorption band of glucose). In order to mimic the optical properties of biological skin tissue, 2% and 10% of 20% intralipid with various concentrations of glucose (0 to 4000 mg/dL) was prepared and used as sample. Using OCT technique, interference spectra were obtained using an optical spectrum analyzer with a resolution of 0.5 nm. Further processing of the interference spectra provided information on reflections from the surfaces of the cuvette containing the aqueous glucose sample. Due to the absorption of glucose in the wavelength range of 1540 nm to 1640 nm, a trend of reduction in the intensity of the back reflected light was observed with increase in the concentration of glucose.
This study aims at developing a non-invasive technique to evaluate periodontal loss of attachment in the oral cavity.
A method of imaging periodontal loss of attachment based on time-domain optical coherence tomography is proposed
and studied. Based on measurements, boundaries of gingival tissue and tooth were seen separated by ≈0.3 mm. Further
study is in progress to image the anatomical landmarks and evaluate the periodontal loss of attachment. The conventional
time domain OCT systems acquisition speed is limited by the speed of the mechanical scanning system. In order to
overcome this issue, a novel electro-optic based scanning system is proposed and demonstrated. Studies were performed
initially with lithium niobate and potassium titanyl phosphate crystals and the tuning range observed were low. In order
to increase the tuning range, a crystal with high electro-optic coefficient – potassium tantalite niobate was identified and
experiments were carried out to characterise the crystal and electro-optic based phase tuning is demonstrated.
In this work, a detailed study on the effect of ambient and beam profile in the crystallization of a-Si thin films is presented. A Q switched Nd3+: YAG laser, with the wavelength 532 nm and pulse duration 6 ns FWHM is considered. Laser annealing is performed with a Gaussian beam and flat-top beam profile on 400 nm and 1000 nm thick a-Si films deposited on c-Si substrate. In order to induce annealing along with texturing of surface, laser beam overlap technique with a 90% spot overlapping is used. Experiments are perfomed in air and in water ambience. XRD peaks corresponding to poly-silicon thin film are observed with the Nd3+:YAG laser treatment. Raman spectroscopy analysis confirms the formation of poly crystalline films. Changes in surface morphology is observed using Scanning Electron Microscope. In theoretical simulation, thermal modeling is used and nanosecond laser induced annealing at a longer wavelength has been found to be suitable for crystallization of thick amorphous silicon films but results in heating the substrate.
Evenly spaced conductive grids of copper and aluminum thin films on polyamide substrate are used for parabolic reflector-antennas, aboard telecommunications satellite. In the present paper, laser micro scribing of thin films using a flat-top and Gaussian laser beam profile are analyzed with 95% overlapping of the diameter of the laser spot. Laser scribing is performed using the Q-switched Nd3+: YAG (355, 532 nm) laser. The influence of laser irradiation and beam shape are experimentally analyzed using non-contact optical profilometer and scanning electron microscope (SEM). Laser scribing using flat-top profile produced near rectangular micro channels in copper thin films. Using Gaussian profile the probability of melting is greater than vaporization as observed using SEM images; this melt pool plays a prominent role in re-solidification at the edges. Depth of the scribe channel is observed to be 20% high for 532 nm wavelength compared to 355 nm wavelength. Effect of different environments such as air, water and vacuum on the channel depth and quality is reported. The response of aluminum and copper for high fluences is also studied. Theoretical modeling of the laser-material interaction using Comsol mulitphysics 4.4 is discussed.
An approach based on fiber-coupled super-luminescent diodes (SLD) centered at two different wavelengths 1530
nm and 831 nm along with a spectrometer were used for analysis and monitoring of ammonia (NH3) and water vapor
(H2O) gas concentrations of the order of hundreds of ppm, respectively. It was studied experimentally and
computationally verified. The proposed approach can allow multiple gas sensing in mixture of these for industrial and
combustion monitoring.
Fabrication of textured poly-crystalline silicon films from amorphous-silicon (a-Si) films using a line beam is
investigated. The mechanism of laser annealing and simultaneously form a nano-textured surface using an Nd3+: YAG
laser at a wavelength of 355 nm with a line beam is discussed. Amorphous-Si films coated on glass and crystalline
silicon substrates were treated with different laser fluence from 100 to 600 mJ/cm2 and with 90% beam overlap. The
crystallization and texturization characteristics were analyzed through SEM, Raman Spectroscopy, AFM, resistance and
absorbance measurements. Generation of polycrystalline textured peaks was confirmed with different characterization
methods and compared with the results of the conventional circular beam. This approach of line beam with increase in
the scanning speed will allow the faster production of polycrystalline silicon from a-Si for photovoltaic application.
Efficient doping of amorphous silicon(a-Si) is a key issue in the field of photovoltaic applications. In this paper an
attempt has been made to produce a highly highly textured Sb doped a-Si. The a-Si were coated with Sb to a thickness
of 200nm using vacuum evaporation method and treated with an Nd:YAG laser of 355nm with a threshold fluence of
460mJ/cm2 by overlapping the laser spots to 90% of its size. The samples are retretaed with a low laser fluence of
230mJ/cm2 respectively so as to crytsallize and diffuse the Sb on to the surface and to activate the dopant. The laser
doped and subequently laser textured samples were analysed through Scanning Electron microscope (SEM), X-ray
diffraction (XRD) & Atomic Force Microscope(AFM).The traces of SiSb in the XRD peak with improved surface
roughness were observed on the laser doped samples. This represents that the dopants are highly diffused on the a-Si.
In the present work the scope of using micro-electro discharge machining (micro-EDM) technique to generate metalnanoparticles
is studied and thermal conductivity of the fluid with particles generated using micro-EDM is characterized.
In the experiment, aluminum workpiece is machined with an aluminum tool electrode in deionized water. 40 to 96 V is
applied for machining with pulse-on duration being varied between 10 and 100 microseconds. The particle count analysis
reveals that low voltage and high pulse-on duration favors formation of smaller sized particles, as predicted by the
developed model. A thermal conductivity measurements show 4% rise in thermal conductivity with the sample (0.004%
by wt. in deionized water) produced by micro-EDM setup.
A micro-electro-discharge machine (Micro EDM) was developed incorporating a piezoactuated direct drive tool feed
mechanism for micromachining of Silicon using a copper tool. Tool and workpiece materials are removed during Micro
EDM process which demand for a tool wear compensation technique to reach the specified depth of machining on the
workpiece. An in-situ axial tool wear and machining depth measurement system is developed to investigate axial wear
ratio variations with machining depth. Stepwise micromachining experiments on silicon wafer were performed to
investigate the variations in the silicon removal and tool wear depths with increase in tool feed. Based on these
experimental data, a tool wear compensation method is proposed to reach the desired depth of micromachining on silicon
using copper tool. Micromachining experiments are performed with the proposed tool wear compensation method and a
maximum workpiece machining depth variation of 6% was observed.
A prototype microelectrodischarge machine (micro-EDM) with a piezoactuated tool feed mechanism has been developed. In micro-EDM, the tool also experiences continuous wear during machining. This necessitates a tool wear compensation technique to attain a specified depth of micromachining on the workpieces. Tool wear compensation studies are performed during micromachining of silicon wafers using a copper tool. In order to estimate the necessary tool wear compensation, an axial tool wear and micromachined hole-depth measurement technique is incorporated, and variation in wear ratio at different depths of micromachining is investigated. Process simulation of micro-EDM is also performed to estimate the tool wear compensation required to reach a predefined depth during micromachining on silicon. Results obtained by simulation for the required tool feed, depth of hole achieved corresponding to a set value, and the resulting axial tool wear are in close agreement with experimental results. A machining depth variation of about 6% with respect to the estimated depth is observed. This approach provides a process control methodology for mircromachining of semiconductor and conducting materials to predefined depth with high accuracy.
Comparative study is performed for a mid-infrared differential absorption lidar system with different wavelengths around
1.6 μm and 2 μm for remote sensing of green-house effect gas CO2. Simulation based on lidar equations is performed for
estimating detectable range and detectable concentration per unit volume. Different approaches for developing the
coherent light sources, such as a KTiOPO4 nonlinear optical crystal based optical parametric oscillator, widely tunable
Ti3+:sapphire laser based Raman shifter are also considered and the effect of strong and weak absorption lines, spectral
width and output energy of the coherent light source on the detection sensitivity is investigated at different wavelengths
of interests.
Simulation results show that DIAL system around 1.6 μm can provide a long range measurement with a narrow spectral
width (0.03 cm-1) of the light source. However, with a wider spectral width (0.3 cm-1) the detectable range is comparable
to that of the DIAL system around 2 μm wavelength. The detection sensitivity is also limited by the available output
energy from the light source.
Development of a mid-infrared differential absorption LIDAR system around 2.0 and 2.3 tm wavelength is proposed for remote sensing of greenhouse-effect gases, such as CO2 and CH. A model calculation shows that the 1.6 to 2 ptm wavelength region is also suitable for the CO2 measurements. A widely tunable self—injection seeded Ti3: sapphire laser in combination with a Raman shifter is used for a tunable mid-infrared laser source. This combination could allow a wide tuning range between 1.6 and 2.3 .tm. The spectral width of the Ti3: sapphire laser was measured around 0.04 cnf 1 and stability of the laser source was also studied by a Fabry-Perot interferometer in order to determine theaccuracy of the DIAL measurement. Currently, output energy is limited to only a few mJ limiting the detection sensitivity. Nevertheless improved output characteristics should meet the requirements satisfactorily to monitor CO2 and CH gases in the atmosphere.
In the present work, a sensing system for methane gas leakage monitoring based on a differential absorption lidar with a high temporal resolution is proposed and a spectrally narrowed light source at 1.67 ?m is developed for the same. To realize a compact light source, an injection seeded optical parametric oscillator (OPO) combined with two-stage optical parametric amplifiers (OPAs) is considered. Both OPO and OPAs were pumped by a compact frequency doubled Nd:YAG laser, and a single—mode diode laser (781.6 nm) was employed for injection seeding of the OPO. The output energy of around 5 mJ corresponding to a pump input of 85 mJ was obtained using Ce doped KTP (Ce:KTiOPO4) crystals. The spectral width of the source was measured as 0.5 cm-1 with a beam divergence angle of less than 2 mrad. These output characteristics are satisfactorily meeting the requirements to detect the methane leakage in a short range.
Various kinds of nonlinear Raman spectroscopy, such as coherent anti-Stokes Raman spectroscopy (CARS), stimulated Raman gain spectroscopy (SRGS), photo-acoustic Raman spectroscopy (PARS), and thermal-lens Raman spectroscopy (TLRS), can be applied for the detection of molecules in the atmosphere. In traditional nonlinear Raman spectroscopy, two lasers whose frequency difference was tuned to the Raman shift frequency had to be prepared. We proposed a new configuration using a Nd:YAG laser and a Raman shifter. The Raman shifter contained the same kind of gas to be measured, so that efficient Raman-shifted beam was automatically generated in this simple configuration. We demonstrated sensitive detection of H2 and CH4 in the atmosphere by various kinds of nonlinear Raman spectroscopy as mentioned above. The detection limit was approximately 1-30 ppm level in every method using a sample gas cell. In the case of SRGS, remote sensing is possible, and the detection sensitivity can be increased using long optical pass as in the absorption spectroscopy, because the signal is obtained by a coherent light beam and there is no limitation caused by phase-matching condition. Using the Mie scattering in the atmosphere as a distributed mirror, a new type of nonlinear Raman lidar can be constructed. In this paper, we discussed on the feasibility of long-pass and lidar measurement for the detection of CH4, H2 and CO2 by SRGS using a pulsed Nd:YAG laser.
We describe the deposition of Ti:sapphire thin films by the pulsed-laser deposition (PLD) method for the waveguide laser application, with an emphasis on the reduction of droplets which is inevitably generate during PLD. In order to eliminate the droplets for the film surface, we introduced centrifugal separation of the droplets out of the laser ablation plume using a high-speed rotating target. The behavior of droplets in the ablation plume generated with a high-speed rotating target is presented along with the film properties.
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