Single electron Sensitive Read Out (SiSeRO) is a novel on-chip charge detection technology that can, in principle, provide significantly greater responsivity and improved noise performance than traditional charge coupled device (CCD) readout circuitry. The SiSeRO, developed by MIT Lincoln Laboratory, uses a p-MOSFET transistor with a depleted back-gate region under the transistor channel; as charge is transferred into the back gate region, the transistor current is modulated. With our first generation SiSeRO devices, we previously achieved a responsivity of around 800pA per electron, an equivalent noise charge (ENC) of 4.5 electrons root mean square (RMS), and a full width at half maximum (FWHM) spectral resolution of 130eV at 5.9keV, at a readout speed of 625Kpixel/s and for a detector temperature of 250K. Importantly, since the charge signal remains unaffected by the SiSeRO readout process, we have also been able to implement Repetitive Non-Destructive Readout (RNDR), achieving an improved ENC performance. In this paper, we demonstrate sub-electron noise sensitivity with these devices, utilizing an enhanced test setup optimized for RNDR measurements, with excellent temperature control, improved readout circuitry, and advanced digital filtering techniques. We are currently fabricating new SiSeRO detectors with more sensitive and RNDR-optimized amplifier designs, which will help mature the SiSeRO technology in the future and eventually lead to the pathway to develop active pixel sensor (APS) arrays using sensitive SiSeRO amplifiers on each pixel. Active pixel devices with sub-electron sensitivity and fast readout present an exciting option for next generation, large area astronomical x-ray telescopes requiring fast, low-noise megapixel imagers.
Future strategic x-ray satellite telescopes, such as the probe-class Advanced x-ray Imaging Satellite (AXIS), will require excellent soft energy response in their imaging detectors to enable maximum discovery potential. In order to characterize Charge-Coupled Device (CCD) and Single Electron Sensitive Read Output (SiSeRO) detectors in the soft x-ray region, the x-ray Astronomy and Observational Cosmology (XOC) group at Stanford has developed, assembled, and commissioned a 2.5-meter-long x-ray beamline test system. The beamline is designed to efficiently produce monoenergetic x-ray fluorescence lines in the 0.3 to 10keV energy range and achieve detector temperatures as low as 173K. We present design and simulation details of the beamline, and discuss the vacuum, cooling, and X-ray fluorescence performance achieved. As a workhorse for future detector characterization at Stanford, the XOC beamline will support detector development for a broad range of x-ray astronomy instruments.
KEYWORDS: Sensors, Charge-coupled devices, Analog electronics, X-rays, Analog to digital converters, CCD image sensors, Power consumption, X-ray imaging, Prototyping, Iron
The Advanced x-ray Imaging Satellite (AXIS) is a NASA probe class mission concept designed to deliver arcsecond resolution with an effective area ten times that of Chandra (at launch). The AXIS focal plane features an MIT Lincoln Laboratory (MIT-LL) x-ray charge-coupled device (CCD) detector working in conjunction with an application specific integrated circuit (ASIC), denoted the Multi-Channel Readout Chip (MCRC). While this readout ASIC targets the AXIS mission, it is applicable to a range of potential x-ray missions with comparable readout requirements. Designed by the x-ray astronomy and Observational Cosmology (XOC) group at Stanford University, the MCRC ASIC prototype (MCRC-V1.0) uses a 350nm technology node and provides 8 channels of high speed, low noise, low power consumption readout electronics. Each channel implements a current source to bias the detector output driver, a preamplifier to provide gain, and an output buffer to interface directly to an analog-to-digital (ADC) converter. The MCRC-V1 ASIC exhibits comparable performance to our best discrete electronics implementations, but with ten times less power consumption and a fraction of the footprint area. In a total ionizing dose (TID) test, the chip demonstrated a radiation hardness equal or greater to 25krad, confirming the suitability of the process technology and layout techniques used in its design. The next iteration of the ASIC (MCRC-V2) will expand the channel count and extend the interfaces to external circuits, advancing its readiness as a readout-on-a-chip solution for next generation x-ray CCD-like detectors. This paper summarizes our most recent characterization efforts, including the TID radiation campaign and results from the first operation of the MCRC ASIC in combination with a representative MIT-LL CCD.
Charge coupled devices remain the scientific tool of choice for x-ray imaging spectrometers for astrophysics applications due to their deep depletion depths, low noise, and uniform Gaussian energy response. These qualities provide advantages over both monolithic and hybridized CMOS sensors in this application space, but relative to these alternatives come most significantly at the cost of frame rate. This work at MIT’s Lincoln Laboratory in collaboration with MIT’s Kavli Institute and Stanford’s KIPAC presents current directions of pursuit in design, fabrication, and architecture towards the end of improved CCD performance at elevated data rates. Advanced sense nodes designed for low noise, high speed operation requires pushing towards high conversion gain and high transconductance sense transistors both through enhancement of current generation JFETs and refinement of design for future generation SiSeRO nodes [single electron sensitive readout]. Larger devices require lower capacitance parallel gates to support charge transfer towards output nodes at the requisite pixel rates. Transition from triple-poly to single poly gate structures reduces this capacitance while maintaining high charge transfer efficiency to high transfer rates across many cm2 devices. Architecturally, enhanced parallelization with increased port counts and densities supports elevated data rates for any given pixel rate. Close integration to support ASICs handles this elevated data rate without undue multiplication of support electronics.
Future strategic x-ray astronomy missions will require unprecedentedly sensitive wide-field imagers providing high frame rates, low readout noise and excellent soft energy response. To meet these needs, our team is employing a multi-pronged approach to advance several key areas of technology. Our first focus is on advanced readout electronics, specifically integrated electronics, where we are collaborating on the VERITAS readout chip for the Athena Wide Field Imager, and have developed the Multi-Channel Readout Chip (MCRC), which enables fast readout and high frame rates for MIT-LL JFET (junction field effect transistor) CCDs. Second, we are contributing to novel detector development, specifically the SiSeRO (Single electron Sensitive Read Out) devices fabricated at MIT Lincoln Laboratory, and their advanced readout, to achieve sub-electron noise performance. Hardware components set the stage for performance, but their efficient utilization relies on software and algorithms for signal and event processing. Our group is developing digital waveform filtering and AI methods to augment detector performance, including enhanced particle background screening and improved event characterization. All of these efforts make use of an efficient, new x-ray beamline facility at Stanford, where components and concepts can be tested and characterized.
Bringing artificial intelligence (AI) alongside next-generation X-ray imaging detectors, including CCDs and DEPFET sensors, enhances their sensitivity to achieve many of the flagship science cases targeted by future X-ray observatories, based upon low surface brightness and high redshift sources. Machine learning algorithms operating on the raw frame-level data provide enhanced identification of background vs. astrophysical X-ray events, by considering all of the signals in the context within which they appear within each frame. We have developed prototype machine learning algorithms to identify valid X-ray and cosmic-ray induced background events, trained and tested upon a suite of realistic end-to-end simulations that trace the interaction of cosmic ray particles and their secondaries through the spacecraft and detector. These algorithms demonstrate that AI can reduce the unrejected instrumental background by up to 41.5 per cent compared with traditional filtering methods. Alongside AI algorithms to reduce the instrumental background, next-generation event reconstruction methods, based upon fitting physically-motivated Gaussian models of the charge clouds produced by events within the detector, promise increased accuracy and spectral resolution of the lowest energy photon events.
High spatial- and spectral-resolution X-ray capabilities are essential for future strategic missions to address the key priorities set forth by the 2020 Decadal Survey on Astronomy and Astrophysics. These missions will require megapixel X-ray imaging detectors more capable than any available today, providing frame rates at least a factor of 20 faster and pixel aspect ratios twice as large, while retaining the low noise and excellent spectral performance of current sensors.
We summarize recent results from our NASA-funded technology development program to develop imaging sensors required for future strategic missions, and describe the prototype CCD sensor we are developing for AXIS, the Advanced X-ray Imaging Satellite mission concept recently proposed in response to NASA’s Astrophysics Probe Explorer call. We have designed and are fabricating at MIT Lincoln Laboratory a 16-output, 1440 x 1440 pixel frame-store CCD to serve as a form/fit/function prototype for AXIS. This sensor incorporates the low-voltage, single-polysilicon gate and low-noise pJFET technologies we have proven in previous work. Our goal is to demonstrate a device meeting or exceeding the noise, spectral resolution and frame-rate requirements of AXIS when operated with the Multi-channel Readout Chip developed by our team at Stanford University. We also describe our strategy for optimizing CCD output amplifier architecture and design for even lower noise and faster readout for AXIS and subsequent high-energy astrophysics missions.
Traditional cosmic ray filtering algorithms used in X-ray imaging detectors aboard space telescopes perform event reconstruction based on the properties of activated pixels above a certain energy threshold, within 3×3 or 5×5 pixel sliding windows. This approach can reject up to 98% of the cosmic ray background. However, the remaining unrejected background constitutes a significant impediment to studies of low surface brightness objects, which are especially prevalent in the high-redshift universe. The main limitation of the traditional filtering algorithms is their ignorance of the long-range contextual information present in image frames. This becomes particularly problematic when analyzing signals created by secondary particles produced during interactions of cosmic rays with body of the detector. Such signals may look identical to the energy deposition left by X-ray photons, when one considers only the properties within the small sliding window. Additional information is present, however, in the spatial and energy correlations between signals in different parts of the same frame, which can be accessed by modern machine learning (ML) techniques. In this work, we continue the development of an ML-based pipeline for cosmic ray background mitigation. Our latest method consist of two stages: first, a frame classification neural network is used to create class activation maps (CAM), localizing all events within the frame; second, after event reconstruction, a random forest classifier, using features obtained from CAMs, is used to separate X-ray and cosmic ray features. The method delivers > 40% relative improvement over traditional filtering in background rejection in standard 0.3-10 keV energy range, at the expense of only a small (< 2%) level of lost X-ray signal. Our method also provides a convenient way to tune the cosmic ray rejection threshold to adapt to a user’s specific scientific needs.
Anna-Katharina Schweingruber, Sven Herrmann, Peter Orel, Ajay Kumar Dakshinamurthy, Astrid Mayr, Johannes Müller-Seidlitz, Jonas Reiffers, Sebastian Albrecht, Hermine Schnetler, Steven Allen, Glenn Morris
KEYWORDS: Analog electronics, Field effect transistors, Tunable filters, Sensors, Electronic filtering, Signal filtering, Multiplexers, Switches, Signal processing, Resistors
VERITAS 2.3 is a further step in the development of the VERITAS (VErsatile Readout based on Integrated Trapezoidal Analog Shapers) ReadOut Integrated Circuit (ROIC) architecture designed for high-speed, lownoise readout of the DEPFET detectors in the Wide Field Imager on ESA’s ATHENA X-ray satellite. The chip includes 64 channels, delivering a short processing time of 2.5 μs per readout while targeting a system noise of 3 e− ENC RMS, enabling nearly Fano-limited spectroscopic performance. While the new chip still uses previous versions’ proven 0.35 μm CMOS technology node, we have employed new foundry and process options for better manufacturability and improved reliability. An overview of the design and development of VERITAS 2.3 is presented, along with the first standalone functionality and performance measurements conducted using a dedicated ASIC test setup.
We demonstrate so-called repetitive non-destructive readout (RNDR) for the first time on a single electron sensitive readout (SiSeRO) device. SiSeRO is a novel on-chip charge detector output stage for charge-coupled device image sensors, developed at MIT Lincoln Laboratory. This technology uses a p-MOSFET transistor with a depleted internal gate beneath the transistor channel. The transistor source-drain current is modulated by the transfer of charge into the internal gate. RNDR was realized by transferring the signal charge non-destructively between the internal gate and the summing well (SW), which is the last serial register. The advantage of the non-destructive charge transfer is that the signal charge for each pixel can be measured at the end of each transfer cycle, and by averaging for a large number of measurements (Ncycle), the total noise can be reduced by a factor of 1/Ncycle. In our experiments with a prototype SiSeRO device, we implemented nine (Ncycle=9) RNDR cycles, achieving around two electron readout noise (equivalent noise charge or ENC) with a spectral resolution close to the fano limit for silicon at 5.9 keV. These first results are extremely encouraging, demonstrating successful implementation of the RNDR technique in SiSeROs. They also lay the foundation for future experiments with more optimized test stands (better temperature control, larger number of RNDR cycles, and RNDR-optimized SiSeRO devices), which should be capable of achieving sub-electron noise sensitivities. This new device class presents an exciting technology for next generation astronomical X-ray telescopes requiring very low-noise spectroscopic imagers. The sub-electron sensitivity also adds the capability to conduct in-situ absolute calibration, enabling unprecedented characterization of the low energy instrument response.
AXIS is a Probe-class mission concept that will provide high-throughput, high-spatial-resolution x-ray spectral imaging, enabling transformative studies of high-energy astrophysical phenomena. To take advantage of the advanced optics and avoid photon pile-up, the AXIS focal plane requires detectors with readout rates at least 20 times faster than previous soft x-ray imaging spectrometers flying aboard missions such as Chandra and Suzaku, while retaining the low noise, excellent spectral performance, and low power requirements of those instruments. We present the design of the AXIS high-speed x-ray camera, which baselines large-format MIT Lincoln Laboratory CCDs employing low-noise pJFET output amplifiers and a single-layer polysilicon gate structure that allows fast, low-power clocking. These detectors are combined with an integrated high-speed, low-noise ASIC readout chip from Stanford University that provides better performance than conventional discrete solutions at a fraction of their power consumption and footprint. Our complementary front-end electronics concept employs state of the art digital video waveform capture and advanced signal processing to deliver low noise at high speed. We review the current performance of this technology, highlighting recent improvements on prototype devices that achieve excellent noise characteristics at the required readout rate. We present measurements of the CCD spectral response across the AXIS energy band, augmenting lab measurements with detector simulations that help us understand sources of charge loss and evaluate the quality of the CCD backside passivation technique. We show that our technology is on a path that will meet our requirements and enable AXIS to achieve world-class science.
Traditional image segmentation methods employed with X-ray imaging detectors aboard X-ray space telescopes consist of two stages: first, a low energy threshold is applied; groups of activated pixels are then classified according to their shapes and identified as valid X-ray events or rejected as being possibly induced by cosmic rays. This method is fast and removes up to 98% of the cosmic ray-induced background. However, these traditional methods fail to address two important problems: first, they struggle to recover the true energies of, and sometimes fail to detect entirely, low-energy photons (photon energies less than 0.5keV); second, they consider only the shape of the active pixel regions, ignoring the longer-range context within the image frames. This limits their sensitivity to a specific type of cosmic ray signal: ”islands” created by secondary particles produced by cosmic rays hitting the body of the telescope (the shapes of which are often indistinguishable from X-ray photon signals). Together, these limitations hinder investigations of faint, diffuse targets, such as the outskirts of galaxies and galaxy clusters, and of ”low energy” targets such as individual stars, galaxies and high redshift systems. Both limitations can, however, be addressed with machine learning (ML) models. This work is part of our effort to develop fast and efficient background reduction methods for future astronomical X-ray missions using ML methods. We highlight several significant improvements in the classification and semantic segmentation of our background filtering pipeline. Our more realistic training and test data now incorporate the effects of readout noise and charge diffusion. In the presence of charge diffusion, our model is able to obtain an 80% relative improvement in lost signal recovery compared to the traditional background reduction techniques. We identify several directions for further development of the model.
The Single-Electron Sensitive Read Out (SiSeRO) is an on-chip charge detector output stage for charge-coupled device image sensors. Developed at MIT Lincoln Laboratory, this technology uses a p-MOSFET transistor with a depleted internal gate beneath the transistor channel. The transistor source–drain current is modulated by the transfer of charge into the internal gate. At Stanford, we have developed a readout module based on the drain current of the on-chip transistor to characterize the device. In our earlier work, we characterized a number of first prototype SiSeROs with the MOSFET transistor channels at the surface layer. An equivalent noise charge of around 15 electrons root mean square was obtained. In this work, we examine the first buried-channel SiSeRO. We have achieved substantially improved noise performance of around 4.5eRMS− and a full-width half-maximum energy resolution of 132 eV at 5.9 keV, for a readout speed of 625 kpixel / s. We also discuss how digital filtering techniques can be used to further improve the SiSeRO noise performance. Additional measurements and device simulations will be essential to further mature the SiSeRO technology. This new device class presents an exciting technology for the next-generation astronomical x-ray telescopes requiring fast, low-noise, radiation-hard megapixel imagers with moderate spectroscopic resolution.
KEYWORDS: Charge-coupled devices, Transistors, X-rays, Sensors, Electronics, Capacitance, Field effect transistors, Analog electronics, Digital signal processing, Detector development, X-ray astronomy
Current, state-of-the-art CCDs are close to being able to deliver all key performance figures for future strategic X-ray missions except for the required frame rates. Our Stanford group is seeking to close this technology gap through a multi-pronged approach of microelectronics, signal processing and novel detector devices, developed in collaboration with the Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT) and MIT Lincoln Laboratory (MIT-LL). Here we report results from our (integrated) readout electronics development, digital signal processing and novel SiSeRO (Single electron Sensitive Read Out) device characterization.
Single electron Sensitive Read Out (SiSeRO) is a novel on-chip charge detector output stage for charge-coupled device (CCD) image sensors. Developed at MIT Lincoln Laboratory, this technology uses a p-MOSFET transistor with a depleted internal gate beneath the transistor channel. The transistor source-drain current is modulated by the transfer of charge into the internal gate. At Stanford, we have developed a readout module based on the drain current of the on-chip transistor to characterize the device. Characterization was performed for a number of prototype sensors with different device architectures, e.g. location of the internal gate, MOSFET polysilicon gate structure, and location of the trough in the internal gate with respect to the source and drain of the MOSFET (the trough is introduced to confine the charge in the internal gate). Using a buried-channel SiSeRO, we have achieved a charge/current conversion gain of >700 pA per electron, an equivalent noise charge (ENC) of around 6 electrons root mean square (RMS), and a full width half maximum (FWHM) of approximately 140 eV at 5.9 keV at a readout speed of 625 Kpixel/s. In this paper, we discuss the SiSeRO working principle, the readout module developed at Stanford, and the characterization test results of the SiSeRO prototypes. We also discuss the potential to implement Repetitive Non-Destructive Readout (RNDR) with these devices and the preliminary results which can in principle yield sub-electron ENC performance. Additional measurements and detailed device simulations will be essential to mature the SiSeRO technology. However, this new device class presents an exciting technology for next generation astronomical X-ray telescopes requiring fast, low-noise, radiation hard megapixel imagers with moderate spectroscopic resolution.
The X-ray Astronomy and Observational Cosmology (XOC) group at Stanford University, in collaboration with the Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT) and MIT Lincoln Laboratory (MIT-LL), is developing next generation X-ray detector and readout technologies. Specifically, the XOC group is developing a fast, low noise readout application specific integrated circuit (ASIC) that is intended to be paired with X-ray charge-coupled device (CCD) detectors in development at MIT-LL. This readout ASIC is denoted as the MIT CCD Readout Chip or MCRC. The MCRC prototype is designed in a 350 nm technology node featuring 8 channels. Each channel is composed of two inputs. One is dedicated to read out the proven source follower-based (SF) CCD architecture with two selectable gain settings, an input referred noise of 1.63 e−RMS, an input dynamic range of ±160 mV, channel to channel crosstalk less than -75 dBc, a power consumption of roughly 30 mW/channel, and a bandwidth of approximately 50 MHz, translating to an effective rise time of around 5 ns. Such a response can comfortably support readout speeds for large CCD pixel matrices in excess of 5 Mpixel/s/channel. The chip also features a second input which is an experimental drain-current readout (DR) topology to support Single electron Sensitive Read Out (SiSeRO) CCD stages currently in development at MIT-LL. The MCRC excels in speed while its input noise and bandwidth are on par with commercial discrete offerings, but with smaller power and real-estate footprints. Here we present the latest measurement results for this state-of-the-art prototype readout ASIC.
We present an evaluation of an on-chip charge detector, called the single electron sensitive read out (SiSeRO), for charge-coupled device image sensor applications. It uses a p-channel metal-oxide-semiconductor field-effect transistor (p-MOSFET) transistor at the output stage with a depleted internal gate beneath the p-MOSFET. Charge transferred to the internal gate modulates the source-drain current of the transistor. We have developed a drain current readout module to characterize the detector. The prototype sensor achieves a charge/current conversion gain of 700 pA per electron, an equivalent noise charge (ENC) of 15 electrons (e − ) root mean square, and a full width half maximum of 230 eV at 5.9 keV. Further, we discuss the SiSeRO working principle, the readout module developed at Stanford, and the first characterization test results of the SiSeRO prototypes. While at present only a proof-of-concept experiment, in the near future we plan to use next generation sensors with improved noise performance and an enhanced readout module. In particular, we are developing a readout module enabling repetitive non-destructive readout of the charge, which can in principle yield subelectron ENC performance. With these developments, we eventually plan to build a matrix of SiSeRO amplifiers to develop an active pixel sensor with an on-chip application specific integrated circuit-based readout system. Such a system, with fast readout speeds and subelectron noise, could be effectively utilized in scientific applications requiring fast and low-noise spectro-imagers.
The broad energy response, low electronic read noise, and good energy resolution have made x-ray charge-coupled devices (CCDs) an obvious choice for developing soft x-ray astronomical instruments over the last half-century. They also come in large array formats with small pixel sizes, which make them a potential candidate for the next-generation astronomical x-ray missions. However, the next-generation x-ray telescopic experiments propose for significantly larger collecting area compared with the existing observatories to explore the low luminosity and high redshift x-ray universe that requires these detectors to have an order of magnitude faster readout. In this context, Stanford University (SU) in collaboration with the Massachusetts Institute of Technology has initiated the development of fast readout electronics for x-ray CCDs. At SU, we have designed and developed a fast and low noise readout module with the goal of achieving a readout speed of 5 Mpixel / s. We successfully ran a prototype CCD matrix of 512 × 512 pixels at 4 Mpixels / s. In this paper, we describe the details of the readout electronics and report the performance of the detectors at these readout speeds in terms of read noise and energy resolution. In the future, we plan to continue to improve the performance of the readout module and eventually converge to a dedicated application-specific integrated circuit or ASIC-based readout system to enable parallel readout of large array multinode CCD devices.
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