Generating realistic radiographs from CT is mainly limited by the native spatial resolution of the latter. Here we present a general approach for synthesizing high-resolution digitally reconstructed radiographs (DRRs) from an arbitrary resolution CT volume. Our approach is based on an upsampling framework where tissues of interest are first segmented from the original CT volume and then upsampled individually to the desired voxelization (here ∼1 mm → 0.2 mm). Next, we create high-resolution 2D tissue maps by cone-beam projection of individual tissues in the desired radiography direction. We demonstrate this approach on a coronary artery calcium (CAC) patient CT scan and show that our approach preserves individual tissue volumes, yet enhances the tissue interfaces, creating a sharper DRR without introducing artificial features. Lastly, we model a dual-layer detector to synthesize high-resolution dual-energy (DE) anteroposterior and lateral radiographs from the patient CT to visualize the CAC in 2D through material decomposition. On a general level, we envision that this approach is valuable for creating libraries of synthetic yet realistic radiographs from corresponding large CT datasets.
Dual-layer detectors offer the potential for energy separation, allowing for lesion differentiation and material decomposition without the effects of motion blur that occur in dual-energy detection. We have proposed a direct/indirect dual-layer amorphous selenium (a-Se) detector, in which the direct conversion top layer absorbs low energy x-rays and higher energy x-rays pass through to be absorbed by the indirect conversion bottom layer. First studies of the indirect layer, consisting of a thin-film transistor (TFT) flat panel detector (FPD) with an a-Se photoconductive layer, show promising results, but the MTF was limited by the performance of the gadolinium oxysulfide scintillator used. To improve spatial resolution, a CsI:Tl scintillator should be employed. Unfortunately, the emission peak of CsI:Tl scintillators falls outside optimal wavelengths for a-Se photoconduction. By alloying the a-Se with Te and operating at high fields, we improve absorption and signal production in the FPD. In this work, this is we fabricate single pixel a-Se-Te detectors with a parylene blocking layer and give results for Te concentrations of 0%, 10%, 15%, and 20%. While leakage currents and lag increase with Te content, conversion efficiency is improved by over 30%, showing promise for implementation into an FPD with a CsI:Tl scintillator.
This study analyzes an approach to augment PET imaging accuracy with the integration of quantum entanglement (QE) information to enhance the true coincidence rate. Positron annihilation events generate gamma rays in a singly entangled state with scattering dynamics discernable from unentangled gammas, such as random (and potentially scatter) coincidences. In a GATE simulation, a prototype 2-panel CZT PET system and positron source are modeled with a QE physics model from GEANT4. The relative azimuthal scattering angle (Δϕ) distribution for non- and 1-mm binned gamma ray hits are computed. Additionally, a set of random-only coincidence data is created. Results show that 1 mm crystal bins yield accurate Δϕ computation with an MAE of 6.8, confirming the physical significance of the filtering technique. Filtering the true- and random-only sets with varying Δϕ windows indicate proportionally greater retention of true events compared to random events: ~1.37 for the unbinned set. This study showcases the integration of QE-GEANT4 into GATE PET studies, and the feasibility for pixel-dense (with high-resolution depth of interaction information) PET scanners to extract such information.
In medical imaging, material decomposition and lesion differentiation are essential for the early detection of many severe and deadly diseases. While standard flat panel imagers are capable of providing high-resolution images, they lack the ability to differentiate between X-ray energies and, therefore, soft and hard tissues. Detection of multiple X-ray energies by dual-shot, photon counting, or dual-layer detectors provides a route for differentiation of these tissues based on the spectrum observed; multiple images may be generated based on the energies, allowing for subtraction and a more detailed image of tissues and calcifications. To improve the resolution, dose level, and motion artifacts of these imagers, we propose a new dual-layer detector consisting of a direct conversion amorphous selenium top layer, followed by an indirect conversion scintillator/amorphous selenium bottom layer. In this work, we present the first steps towards building this detector by characterizing the performance of the bottom indirect flat panel. We show that the blocking layer chosen, though unoptimized, performs adequately up to 50 V/um and have fabricated the detector, which will be evaluated for detective quantum efficiency and modulation transfer function.
We demonstrate measured radiation detection results from a 50 × 50 μm2 pixel size direct-conversion amorphous selenium (a-Se)/CMOS hybrid detector. We are interested in investigating a monolithic hybrid CMOS detector composed of an a-Se photoconductor thin film integrated on a CMOS active pixel readout array. In this work, we attempt to verify the fabrication process of a-Se as a photoconductive layer for integration with an existing CMOS ASIC. For this initial investigation, the RD53B-ATLAS was used to validate the deposition of a-Se for integration with CMOS technology.
Coincidence timing calibration is fundamental to PET imaging. The electronics, cable lengths, and detector physics such as charge drift and depth dependence add to the measured time differences in coincidence sorting – increasing random rate, decreasing true rate, and degrading system performance. This work investigates the parameter selection for convex optimization (Ordinary Least Squares) for timing calibration. We test the correlation between commonly selected parameters and the experimentally measured coincidence time difference. Additionally, we test 127 nested models of a parameterized regression equation to identify the those which optimize MSE, BIC, and FWHM, respectively. In each of these models, the FWHM performance improved ~53%, though the value shifted from ~ 304 to 160 ns – far from ~ 10 ns FWHM CZT can achieve. The results point to the lack of a necessary parameter, such as trigger threshold level or temperature, or data which is too variable for the OLS optimization.
Quantum entanglement provides an innovative approach to subtracting noise from the reconstructed image. We are studying the presence of correlated back-to-back gamma rays on a dual panel detector which utilizes the cadmium zinc telluride (CZT) cross strip configuration. This is performed by plotting the relative azimuthal angle of DCSc events and identifying regions that correspond to the entangled pairs of gammas. Our goal is to obtain a profile for scatter and random background and subtract it from the true image.
Computed tomography (CT) is a non-invasive means of localizing a region of interest within an object, which enables the investigation of soil distributions and localized flow processes within soil pore systems. CT scanning allows for cross-sectional successions that provide visibility within the environment of plant samples. Knowledge of the characteristics of the soil pore system is essential for evaluating various processes that take place between root-soil interactions. In this study, we investigate the potential application of a high-resolution amorphous selenium (a-Se) direct conversion detector on complementary metal-oxide-semiconductor (CMOS) readouts for micro-CT scanning of a soil matrix to image the status of aggregation and networks of pore spaces within intact soil. The combination of the intrinsic high spatial resolution of a-Se and small pixel CMOS readouts provide detailed visualization in the soil aggregates of the plant samples. The x-ray energy and plant soil thickness were varied during the investigation for imaging the root-soil. A 10 μm spatial resolution and noise limited performance of eight photons/pixel at 20 keV were achieved. High attenuation of x-rays in thick soil poses challenges however fine details are observable in thinner samples and care should be taken when choosing soil thickness and container material.
Amorphous selenium (a-Se) is a high gain, low dark current, large area compatible photoconductor that has received significant attention towards the development of UV and X-ray detectors for medical imaging. Indirect detectors utilizing a-Se often feature blue emitting scintillators due to the high attenuation coefficient of a-Se in that region. However, emission tails from the scintillators often fall out of the conversion range of a-Se, and scintillators with emission peaks outside the absorption of Se cannot be utilized. In order to improve the sensitivity and gain in a-Se indirect detectors, we propose doping a-Se with tellurium as a function of depth, where tail emission will be absorbed by the lower bandgap aSe/Te after primary absorption in the initial Se layer. In addition, we employ a lateral device structure to avoid any absorption at short wavelengths from a transparent electrode or blocking layer. In this work, we present the first steps towards fabricating these devices. Studies of charge transport in doped a-Se/Te devices are performed using the transient photocurrent time-of-flight technique. We report hole and electron mobilities for a-Se1-xTex (x = 0, 0.01, 0.05, 0.10) as a function of applied voltage, along with band gaps and comparisons to previous studies. Fabrication of lateral devices, with and without optical slits, is demonstrated and discussed.
Single exposure dual energy Dual-Layer (DL) Flat-Panel Detectors (FPD) are an approach to acquisition technology for x-ray imaging applications. It provides the advantages of enabling dual energy exposures in a single shot, avoiding motion artifacts created by respiratory or cardiac motion, and creating spectral separation to improve tissue specificity. We are investigating the effect of the top layer detector of a DL FPD by comparing two configurations (indirect vs. direct top layer conversion). We are interested in replacing the top layer scintillator detector for a direct conversion detector, made of amorphous selenium (a-Se), to improve image quality. Due to the photoconductive properties of a-Se, we will demonstrate that our design may improve the spatial resolution and high-frequency response of the x-ray image. The merit of developing these detectors lies in the possibility of opportunistic screening for quantifying coronary artery calcium (CAC), determining bone mineral density (i.e., osteoporosis), and characterizing renal stones through improvements to high-contrast visualization. In this work, we simulate the a-Se top layer detector to optimize the design parameters (e.g., the layer thickness and pixel pitch) for direct conversion to maintain spectral separation compared to that provided by a 200 µm cesium iodide (CsI) indirect conversion layer and improve image quality.
Intra-detector scatters (IRS) and Inter-detector scatters (IDS) are events that often happen in positron emission tomography (PET) due to the Compton scattering of an annihilation photon inside one detector block and also from one detector block to another. One challenge in PET system based on Cadmium zinc telluride (CZT) detectors is the high mass attenuation coefficient for Compton scattering at 511 keV that causes a considerable fraction of Multiple Interaction Photon Events (MIPEs). Besides, in a cross strip CZT detector, there is more ambiguity in pairing anode with its corresponding cathode in MIPEs in IRS. This study utilizes state-of-the-art in deep learning to correctly identify target sequences in cross-strip CZT detectors. It is promising to improve the system's sensitivity by identifying true line-of-responses (LOR)s out of different possible LORs from IRS events, IDS events, and Intra-detector ambiguity, which they are usually discarded.
Amorphous selenium (a-Se) possesses unique features that have been leveraged for medical imaging applications. Previously, it was shown that having a soft interface with a-Se will reduce the stress generated from the creation of crystalline nucleus, prevent radiation-induced crystallization, and improve long-term stability of the device. The aim of this study is to develop a uniform thickness of a-Se on a flexible substrate, polyethylene terephthalate coated with indium tin oxide (ITO-PET), for future investigations of the effect of substate on stability of the a-Se against radiation-induced defects and long-term storage. In order to fabricate the a-Se-based detector, we have developed a dedicated thermal evaporator for a-Se deposition. The dependence of the source-to-substrate distance on film uniformity has been investigated. Experimentally, following modeling results, a-Se samples over a 2-inch diameter were deposited on ITOPET and thickness uniformity was compared to simulation.
Cadmium zinc telluride (CZT) radiation detectors are suitable for various applications, due to good energy performance at room temperature and simple pixilation to achieve high spatial resolution. Our group is developing a two-panel head-and-neck dedicated positron emission tomography (PET) system with CZT detectors. In this work, we present the back-end readout electronic design and the initial electronic noise results of our system. The back-end readout electronic incorporates RENA boards (a total 150 RENA boards for each panel), 30:1 fan-in boards connecting 30 RENA boards to the PicoZed 7010/7020 board (a total 5 fan-in boards for each panel). In each panel, 5:1 intermediate boards are used for biasing CZT detectors. The RENA board and the Picozed board are capable of data transmission of 50 Mbps and 6.6 Gbps, respectively. Electronic noise was also quantified using a square wave test pulse that provides charge injection into each channel of the RENA chip in the amount of 75fC/Volt. The pulse amplitude was chosen to generate approximately the same amount of charges as 511 keV photon would provide for each channels. The FWHM electronic noise at 511 keV was measured to be less than 1% (FWHM of 7.80 ± 1.47 ADC units or 4.89 ± 0.92 keV after conversion).
Recent progress with Cadmium Zinc Telluride (CZT) radiation sensors grown by the traveling heater method (THM) at Kromek is reported. Large volume monolithic pixelated detectors, 40×40×15 mm3 have been fabricated with good initial gamma spectroscopy response (< 2.5% energy resolution at 662 keV at room temperature without correction). After depth of interaction (DOI) correction, detector performance with < 1% energy resolution at 662 keV at room temperature has been obtained on pixelated 22×22×15 mm3 CZT detector. For medical imaging applications, 20×20×6 mm3 pixelated detectors exhibits < 3% energy resolution at 122 keV without correction. These results have been achieved via our proprietary THM crystal growth in combination with our robust device fabrication technique. Examples of progress in other areas of CZT development for gamma spectroscopy and imaging applications such as 40×40×5 mm3 cross-strip device for PET and Kromek’s general-purpose SPECT camera will also be presented.
Currently, injection sites of probes, cannula, and optic fibers in stereotactic neurosurgery are typically located manually. This step involves location estimations based on human experiences and thus introduces errors. In order to reduce location error and improve repeatability of experiments and treatments, we investigate an automated method to locate injection sites. This paper proposes fully convolutional networks to locate specific anatomical points on skulls of rodents. Preliminary results show that fully convolutional networks are capable to identify and locate Bregma and Lambda points on rodent skulls. his method has the advantage of rotation and shifting invariance, and simplifies the procedure of locating injection sites. In the future study, the location error will be quantified, and the fully convolutional networks will be improved by expanding the training dataset as well as exploring other structures of convolutional networks.
One electrode configuration frequently used in CZT detectors is the cross-strip pattern. The cathode-to-anode signal ratio (C/A) can be used to estimate the position of photon interaction in the direction perpendicular to the electrode plane. In addition, C/A is used to calibrate for the depth-dependent anode signal. Based on the design configuration of the electrode widths with respect to the CZT thickness, their measured energy spectrum varies due to the small pixel effect and charge trapping. In this work we evaluate the effect of a poor cathode energy resolution on the depth of interaction correction and anode signal recovery.
Small animal positron emission tomography (PET) is a biological imaging technology that allows non-invasive interrogation of internal molecular and cellular processes and mechanisms of disease. New PET molecular probes with high specificity are under development to target, detect, visualize, and quantify subtle molecular and cellular processes associated with cancer, heart disease, and neurological disorders. However, the limited uptake of these targeted probes leads to significant reduction in signal. There is a need to advance the performance of small animal PET system technology to reach its full potential for molecular imaging. Our goal is to assemble a small animal PET system based on CZT detectors and to explore methods to enhance its photon sensitivity. In this work, we reconstruct an image from a phantom using a two-panel subsystem consisting of six CZT crystals in each panel. For image reconstruction, coincidence events with energy between 450 and 570 keV were included. We are developing an algorithm to improve sensitivity of the system by including multiple interaction events.
Currently, during stereotactic neurosurgery procedures, the manual task of locating the proper area for needle insertion or implantation of electrode/cannula/optic fiber can be time consuming. The requirement of the task is to quickly and accurately find the location for insertion. In this study we investigate an automated method to locate the entry point of region of interest. This method leverages a digital image capture system, pattern recognition, and motorized stages. Template matching of known anatomical identifiable regions is used to find regions of interest (e.g. Bregma) in rodents. For our initial study, we tackle the problem of automatically detecting the entry point.
The next generation of discoveries in molecular imaging requires positron emission tomography (PET) systems with high spatial resolution and high sensitivity to visualize and quantify low concentrations of molecular probes. The goal of this work is to assemble and explore such a system. We use cadmium zinc telluride (CZT) to achieve high spatial resolution, three-dimensional interaction positioning, and excellent energy resolution. The CZT crystals are arranged in an edge-on configuration with a minimum gap of 50 μm in a four-sided panel geometry to achieve superior photon sensitivity. The developed CZT detectors and readout electronics were scaled up to complete significant portions of the final PET system. The steering electrode bias and the amplitude of the analog signals for time measurement were optimized to improve performance. The energy resolution (at 511 keV) over 468 channels is 7.43±1.02% full-width-at-half-maximum (FWHM). The spatial resolution is 0.76±0.1 mm FWHM. The time resolution of six CZT crystals in coincidence with six other CZT crystals is 37 ns. With high energy and spatial resolution and the relatively low random rate for small animal imaging, this system shows promise to be very useful for molecular imaging studies.
The goal of this work is to develop and explore a novel small animal PET system that will advance our ability to detect, visualize, and quantify low concentrations of molecular probes. Key technologies of this work are:
(1) A superior performance cadmium zinc telluride (CZT) detector technology that uses solid-state semiconductor detectors, instead of scintillation crystals, to achieve ultra-high (≤ 1 mm3) resolution, 3-dimensional (3-D) event positioning and excellent energy resolution.
(2) A novel edge-on arrangement of these semiconductor crystals in a four-sided panel geometry that facilitates an order of magnitude greater photon detection efficiency.
The 3-D position sensitive dual-CZT detector module and readout electronics developed in our lab was scaled up to complete a significant portion of the final PET system. This sub-system was configured as two opposing detection panels containing a total of twelve 40 mm × 40 mm 5 mm monolithic CZT crystals for
proof of concept. System-level characterization studies, including optimizing the trigger threshold of each channel's comparators, were performed. 68Ge and 137Cs radioactive isotopes were used to characterize the energy resolution of all 468 anode channels in the sub-system. The mean measured global 511~keV photopeak energy resolution over all anodes was found to be 7.35±1.75% FWHM after correction for photon interaction depth-dependent signal variation. The measured global time resolution was 24~ns FWHM after precise time caibration, and the intrinsic spatial resolution was 0.76~mm FWHM.
We have developed a high resolution amorphous selenium (a-Se) direct detection imager using a large-area compatible back-end fabrication process on top of a CMOS active pixel sensor having 25 micron pixel pitch. Integration of a-Se with CMOS technology requires overcoming CMOS/a-Se interfacial strain, which initiates nucleation of crystalline selenium and results in high detector dark currents. A CMOS-compatible polyimide buffer layer was used to planarize the backplane and provide a low stress and thermally stable surface for a-Se. The buffer layer inhibits crystallization and provides detector stability that is not only a performance factor but also critical for favorable long term cost-benefit considerations in the application of CMOS digital x-ray imagers in medical practice. The detector structure is comprised of a polyimide (PI) buffer layer, the a-Se layer, and a gold (Au) top electrode. The PI layer is applied by spin-coating and is patterned using dry etching to open the backplane bond pads for wire bonding. Thermal evaporation is used to deposit the a-Se and Au layers, and the detector is operated in hole collection mode (i.e. a positive bias on the Au top electrode). High resolution a-Se diagnostic systems typically use 70 to 100 μm pixel pitch and have a pre-sampling modulation transfer function (MTF) that is significantly limited by the pixel aperture. Our results confirm that, for a densely integrated 25 μm pixel pitch CMOS array, the MTF approaches the fundamental material limit, i.e. where the MTF begins to be limited by the a-Se material properties and not the pixel aperture. Preliminary images demonstrating high spatial resolution have been obtained from a frst prototype imager.
Traditionally, samples are collected on-site (i.e., in the field) and are shipped to a lab for chemical analysis. An alternative is offered by using portable chemical analysis instruments that can be used on-site (i.e., in the field). Many analytical measurements by optical emission spectrometry require use of light-sources and of spectral lines that are in the Ultra-Violet (UV, ~200 nm – 400 nm wavelength) region of the spectrum. For such measurements, a portable, battery-operated, fiber-optic spectrometer equipped with an un-cooled, linear, solid-state detector may be used. To take full advantage of the advanced measurement capabilities offered by state-of-the-art solid-state detectors, cooling of the detector is required. But cooling and other thermal management hamper portability and use on-site because they add size and weight and they increase electrical power requirements. To address these considerations, an alternative was implemented, as described here. Specifically, a microfabricated solid-state detector for measurement of UV photons will be described. Unlike solid-state detectors developed on crystalline Silicon, this miniaturized and low-cost detector utilizes amorphous Selenium (a-Se) as its photosensitive material. Due to its low dark current, this detector does not require cooling, thus it is better suited for portable use and for chemical measurements on-site. In this paper, a microplasma will be used as a light-source of UV photons for the a-Se detector. For example, spectra acquired using a microplasma as a light-source will be compared with those obtained with a portable, fiber-optic spectrometer equipped with a Si-based 2080-element detector. And, analytical performance obtained by introducing ng-amounts of analytes into the microplasma will be described.
In order to improve the performance of amorphous selenium (a-Se) based detectors, it is beneficial to operate the device
at high electric field (≥10 V/μm). Increasing the electric field reduces the ionization energy and increases the hole
mobility within the a-Se detector. In order for a practical a-Se detector to be capable of working at a high electric field,
injection of holes from the positively biased electrode and injection of electrons from the negatively biased electrode
should be prevented. We have investigated different organic materials with high ionization potential as hole-blocking
contacts for a-Se based photodetectors. The effect of the organic layer thickness on the dark current and photocurrent
performance of the detector was examined. It was found that the injection of holes could be reduced at high electric
fields by increasing the thickness of the organic layer.
KEYWORDS: Sensors, Interfaces, Photodetectors, Amorphous silicon, Silicon, High dynamic range imaging, Electrodes, Medical imaging, PIN photodiodes, Thin films
Previously a-Si:H metal-semiconductor-metal (MSM) lateral detectors for indirect medical imaging applications had been proposed by our research group. These lateral detectors are attractive due to their ease of fabrication primarily because there is no p+ doped semiconductor layer, thus making it compatible with industry standard amorphous silicon thin film transistor electronics processing. However the earlier devices exhibited high dark current which is problematic for integration mode imaging. In the other words, they were limited in term of dynamic range. In this study, we demonstrate an a-Si:H MSM lateral structure with low dark current, high dynamic range and comparable sensitivity and quantum efficiency to conventional p-i-n photodiodes. These improvements are achieved by the introduction of a thin polymer layer as a blocking contact. The fabricated amorphous silicon based MSM detector exhibits a photo-response of more than 3 orders of magnitude to a green light source (λ = 525nm). In comparison to vertical p-i-n structures, the reported MSM lateral devices show gains in terms of dynamic range, ease of fabrication (no p+ layer), faster speed at the cost of a slightly reduced quantum efficiency. The experimental results of dark and photocurrent measurements as well as the responsivity for two in-house fabricated MSM structures at different bias voltages and light intensity are presented. This results are promising and encourage the development of a-Si:H lateral MSM devices for indirect conversion large area medical imaging applications and especially low cost flat panel computed tomography.
An interface has been developed to capture frames taken by X-ray array imagers up to 64×64 pixels. An application
specific integrated circuit (ASIC) designed solely for X-ray flat panel imaging readout circuitry, manufactured by
FLIR® called Indigo (also known as ISC9717), was used as part of charge-amplifier block. An Altera Cyclone II FPGA
is used to serve three purposes: Create pulses required for gate-driver block, Receive fast-stream data coming from the
Indigo chip, and Send data through RS-232 protocol over a serial cable to a personal computer.
Initial results for a 32×32 passive pixel sensor (PPS) with lateral amorphous Selenium metal-semiconductor-metal
(MSM) photodetector were presented in [1]. This work focuses more on methods used to improve the images obtained
from the array. Sharper images produced in sync with the light source are presented. In addition, insight into array
readout circuitry and capturing a frame from an array is discussed.
Amorphous selenium photodetectors, in both lateral and vertical structures, have been investigated for indirect
conversion medical imaging applications. The low dark current, high responsivity for blue light, and possibility for gain
are all among the attractive features of these devices. Typically these devices are deposited on a solid glass substrate and
are read out using thin-film-transistors (TFTs). With the advent of flexible TFTs, flexible electronics have become a
viable technology. This technology may be leveraged for flexible imaging, however the detection and conversion
materials that serve to convert the incident x-rays to collectable charge will also need to be flexible. In this paper, we
investigate the use of amorphous selenium photodetectors on flexible substrates and compare their performance with
amorphous selenium photodetectors deposited on glass.
Lateral amorphous selenium (a-Se) detectors based on the metal-semiconductor-metal (MSM) device structure have
been studied for indirect detector medical imaging applications. These detectors have raised interest due to their simple
structure, ease of fabrication, high-speed, low dark current, low capacitance per unit area and better light utilization. The
lateral device structure has a benefit that the electrode spacing may be easily controlled to reduce the required bias for a
given desired electric field. In indirect conversion x-ray imaging, the scintillator is coupled to the top of the a-Se MSM
photodetector, which itself is integrated on top of the thin-film-transistor (TFT) array. The carriers generated at the top
surface of the a-Se layer experience a field that is parallel to the surface, and does not initially sweep them away from
the surface. Therefore these carriers may recombine or get trapped in surface states and change the field at the surface,
which may degrade the performance of the photodetector. In addition, due to the finite width of the electrodes, the fill
factor of the device is less than unity. In this study we examine the effect of lateral drift of carriers and the fill factor on
the photodetector performance. The impact of field magnitude on the performance is also investigated.
Several strategies have been investigated to acquire both low- and high-energy images simultaneously for contrastenhanced
mammography (CEM). However, for the dual-energy technique where the existing conventional mammography
infrastructure can be leveraged, low- and high-energy images are acquired using two separate exposures
and the finite time between image acquisition leads to motion artifacts in the combined image. Motion artifacts
lead to greater noise in the combined image and affect image quality, however the relationship between them is
not clear. In this study we examine motion artifacts in dual-energy CEM and their impact on anatomical noise
in the combined image and tumor detectability. To study the impact of motion artifacts, a cascaded systems
model is extended to include such motion artifacts. An ideal observer model is used to quantify the performance
and CEM images from a previous clinical study are used for comparison of the extended model.
Previously, metal-semiconductor-metal (MSM) lateral amorphous selenium (a-Se) detectors have been proposed for
indirect detector medical imaging applications. These detectors have raised interest due to their high-speed and
photogain. The gain measured from these devices was assumed to have been photoconductive gain; however the origin
of this gain was not fully understood. In addition, whether or not there was any presence of photocurrent multiplication
gain was not investigated. For integration-type applications photocurrent multiplication gain is desirable since the total
collected charge can be greater than the total number of absorbed photons. In order to fully appreciate the value of MSM
devices and their benefit for different applications, whether it is counting or integration applications, we need to
investigate the responsible mechanisms of the observed response. In this paper, we systematically study, through
experimental and theoretical means, the nature of the photoresponse and its responsible mechanisms. This study also
exposes the possible means to increase the performance of the device and under what conditions it will be most
beneficial.
Previously, we reported on a single-pixel detector based on a lateral a-Se metal-semiconductor-metal structure, intended
for indirect conversion X-ray imaging. This work is the continuous effort leading to the first prototype of an indirect
conversion X-ray imaging sensor array utilizing lateral amorphous selenium. To replace a structurally-sophisticated
vertical multilayer amorphous silicon photodiode, a lateral a-Se MSM photodetector is employed which can be easily
integrated with an amorphous silicon thin film transistor passive pixel sensor array. In this work, both 2×2 macro-pixel
and 32×32 micro-pixel arrays were fabricated and tested along with discussion of the results.
A multilayer (single-shot) detector has previously been proposed for contrast-enhanced mammography. The
multilayer detector has the benefit of avoiding motion artifacts due to simultaneous acquisition of both high
and low energy images. A single layer (dual-shot) detector has the benefit of better control over the energy
separation since the incident beams can be produced and filtered separately. In this paper the performance of
the multilayer detector is compared to that of a single layer detector using an ideal observer detectability index
which is determined from an extended cascaded systems model and a defined imaging task. The detectors are
assumed to have amorphous selenium direct conversion layers, however the same theoretical techniques used here
may be applied to other types of integrating detectors. The anatomical noise caused by variation of glandularity
within the breast is known to dominate the noise power spectrum at low frequencies due to its inverse power
law dependence and is thus taken into account in our model to provide an accurate estimate of the detectability
index. The conditions leading to the optimal detectability index, such as tube voltage, filtration, and weight
factor are reported for both detector designs.
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