The light beam is diffused and scattered randomly when it passes through turbid media. Imaging through inhomogeneous samples, like ground glass, is regarded as a difficult challenge. Here, we propose a method to estimate the number of hidden targets and the pose of multi-targets hidden behind scattering medium by analyzing the distribution of autocorrelation of multi-targets speckle. The autocorrelation of multi-targets includes two parts, the autocorrelation of each sub-target and the cross-correlation among all targets. When multi-targets locate in the same row, the speckle autocorrelation shows a line shape. The autocorrelation of each sub-target overlaps on the center position and the crosscorrelations among them symmetrically distribute at both sides. When multi-targets distribute in different rows and columns, the speckle autocorrelation arranges symmetrically around the center. The autocorrelation of each sub-target overlaps on the center, and the cross-correlations among sub-targets symmetrically distribute around. The relative location among multi-targets can be estimated by calculating the distance from the cross-correlations of two sub-targets. Both simulation and experiment results successfully prove that our method possesses the ability to reconstruct multitargets in different column and cow within optical memory effect (OME) range. The method is expected to be applied to multi-targets recognizing, tracking and imaging through scattering medium in practical applications, such as biomedical imaging, astronomical observations and military detection.
The fringe projection technique is an effective technique to measure 3D shape of objects, in which phase retrieval is an important procedure. In this paper, the phase extraction algorithm of random phase-shift, which can be used in the fluctuating light source and the non-uniform background intensity and modulation amplitude, is proposed. The proposed method can retain more details of reconstructed phase than Fourier transform profilometry. Compared with multi-frame phase-shifting method, the proposed method only needs two fringe patterns to extract the phase and phase shift of the object. Our method consists of two stages. Firstly, the method is built based upon Lissajous Ellipse Fitting technique that extracts the phase from only two phase-shifted fringes which may contain arbitrary and unknown phase shift in dynamic measurement experiment. Second, the non-uniform background intensity and modulation amplitude are removed. The simulation results demonstrate that the proposed method can effectively obtain the phase.
Structured light three-dimensional (3D) measurement techniques have obtained increasing popularity in the field of industrial automation, inverse engineering, and graphics. Recent literatures show that the imperfect of the imaging system in the structured light 3D metrology will cause the discontinuous-induced measurement artifact (DMA) in the area around the discontinuous edge. Existing DMA reduction methods need to detect the all edges accurately first. This procedure is hard to accomplish when the edges are defocused. Meanwhile, the corrected date in the error area relies heavily on the data in its nearest unaffected area, which makes the corrected data unreliable in some situations. In this work, a flexible deconvolution-based method is proposed to solve the above two problems in this paper. Simulation and experiment show that our proposed method can reduce the Root Mean Square phase/height error of DMA by up to 4 times.
KEYWORDS: Diffusers, Cameras, Calibration, 3D modeling, Data modeling, Light scattering, Scattering, Scattering media, 3D acquisition, 3D image processing
Wide-field depth-resolved imaging through scattering media has been a longstanding problem in recent years. In this paper, we proposed a reference-less compact imaging physical model, where the 3D light field data embedded in the volumetric speckle stack through a strong diffuser is explored and analyzed. By utilizing wave-optics and a coherent round-trip field estimation method, the scattering matrix of the diffuser is precisely calibrated as a priori knowledge. After then, the multi-slice targets are placed between the light source and the diffuser, and a set of defocused intensity pattern are recorded for recovering the scattered object field. The real object field is extracted from inverse diffracting of the field employing the conjugation of the calibrated scattering matrix. Wide-field imaging is verified experimentally by recording a resolution chart hidden behind a ground glass. The technique shows great potential in lens-less wave-front sensing and non-reference 3D imaging.
A fringe projection profilometry (FPP) using portable consumer devices is attractive because it can realize optical three dimensional (3D) measurement for ordinary consumers in their daily lives. We demonstrate a FPP using a camera in a smart mobile phone and a digital consumer mini projector. In our experiment of testing the smart phone (iphone7) camera performance, the rare-facing camera in the iphone7 causes the FPP to have a fringe contrast ratio of 0.546, nonlinear carrier phase aberration value of 0.6 rad, and nonlinear phase error of 0.08 rad and RMS random phase error of 0.033 rad. In contrast, the FPP using the industrial camera has a fringe contrast ratio of 0.715, nonlinear carrier phase aberration value of 0.5 rad, nonlinear phase error of 0.05 rad and RMS random phase error of 0.011 rad. Good performance is achieved by using the FPP composed of an iphone7 and a mini projector. 3D information of a facemask with a size for an adult is also measured by using the FPP that uses portable consumer devices. After the system calibration, the 3D absolute information of the facemask is obtained. The measured results are in good agreement with the ones that are carried out in a traditional way. Our results show that it is possible to use portable consumer devices to construct a good FPP, which is useful for ordinary people to get 3D information in their daily lives.
Accurate localisation and characterisation of holes is often required in the field of automated assembly and quality control. Compared to time consuming coordinate measuring machines (CMM), fringe-projection-based 3D scanners offer an attractive alternative as a fast, non-contact measurement technique that provides a dense 3D point cloud of a large sample in a few seconds. However, as we show in this paper, measurement artifacts occur at such hole edges, which can introduce errors in the estimated hole diameter by well over 0.25 mm, even though the estimated hole centre locations are largely unaffected. A compensation technique to suppress these measurement artifacts has been developed, by modelling the artifact using data extrapolated from neighboring pixels. By further incorporating a sub-pixel edge detection technique, we have been able to reduce the root mean square (RMS) diameter errors by up to 9.3 times using the proposed combined method.
Calibration is a crucial step in fringe projection profilometry, which establishes the relationship between unwrapped phase and (FPP) three-dimensional (3-D) shape data (X,Y,h). For an arbitrarily arranged FPP system, a simple geometrical model and mathematical descriptions of the relationships among phase, height distribution, and transverse coordinate are presented. Based on this, a flexible global calibration method is presented to reconstruct 3-D shape by just using a checkerboard with known separation and alternating white and blue. The calibration board is placed at several random positions to determine the relationship between phase and height, and the relationship between pixel position and X, Y coordinates. To get high accuracy, distortion for each pixel is considered. The validity, flexibility, and practicality of this system and calibration technique are verified by experiments.
A color-encoded fringe reflection technique is presented for dynamic specular surface measurement. Only one color-encoded fringe pattern is required in this method. In comparison with the reported dynamic specular surface measuring method (the composite fringe pattern method), the proposed color-encoded fringe technique has higher phase accuracy. The color intensity crosstalk problem between the three channels is discussed. As a result, this problem will seldom affect the phase accuracy of the proposed method. This turns out to be the main reason why the presented method can achieve a higher measuring accuracy than the existing dynamic measurement method. In addition, the proposed color-encoded fringe technique is proven to be more suitable than the existing method for the complex tested surface. The vibrating measuring experiment of a wafer proves the ability of the proposed method to achieve dynamic measurement.
In phase measuring deflectometry (PMD), the inspection accuracy of the defects and height of the specular surface are related to the level of phase errors. The usage of numeric integration in reconstructing the shape and the defocusing capture of the fringe pattern, which will amplify the phase errors, make error discussion more significant in PMD than other shape measurement techniques. Phase error analysis and reduction in PMD are presented. The random noises, nonlinear response function, the nontelecentric imaging of the charge-coupled device camera, and the nonlinear response function of the liquid crystal display screen are the main phase error sources in PMD. The analytical relation between the random phase error and its influence factors in PMD is deduced. From the relation formulation, the influence factors of random phase error are analyzed, and the results are proven by the simulation and experiment. A possible phase error-reduction method, which integrates several methods for congeneric errors in fringe projection profilometry, is investigated to reduce phase errors in PMD. This composite method is proven to have a good performance by a plane mirror experiment.
A one-dimensional Fourier transform of a Rayleigh backscattering traces matrix along the traces direction method has been proposed to simultaneously extract location and frequency information of vibration in the distributed vibration sensing system based on phase-sensitive optical time domain reflectometry. Meanwhile, the signal-to-noise ratio (SNR) of the proposed method also can be improved as the signals are processed in the frequency domain since in the frequency domain, noise is “slow change” compared with the vibration. Then, experiments on two-point vibrations have been done. An SNR of 9.5 dB was achieved, and the spatial resolution is also improved to 3.7 m with a 50 ns pulse width and 2.7 km long fiber owing to the improved SNR.
A convenient method based on fringe reflection technique with a single color fringe pattern is presented in this paper for dynamic measurements. A color screen and a color CCD camera are required in the system. The orthogonal color fringe pattern, which is composed with a horizontal fringe pattern in the red channel and a vertical fringe pattern in the blue channel, is displayed by the screen. The CCD camera captures the distorted color fringe pattern via the tested specular surface. The horizontal and vertical fringe patterns will be distinguished directly once the composite color fringe pattern is read by the software like MATLAB. After we get the phase of the horizontal and vertical fringe patterns by Fourier transform profilometry, the two directions’ slope distributions of the tested specular surface can be acquired by the slope-phase relation of fringe reflection technique, and the shape can be reconstructed by intergral of the slope. The whole shape measurement can be completed by a single fringe pattern. The experiment of measuring a plane mirror shows the phase error of the presented method is several times smaller than the existing method, and a vibrating wafer measuring experiment proves the ability of the proposed method to reach dynamic measurement.
The demands of the less-defective and high-flatness wafers are urgent in many wafer based technologies ranging from micro-electronics to the current photovoltaic industry. As the wafer becomes thinner and larger to cope with the advances in those industries, there is an increasing possibility of the emerging of crack and warp on the wafer surface. High-accuracy inspection of defects and profile are thus necessary to ensure the reliability of device. Phase measuring deflectometry(PMD) is a fast, cost-effective and high accuracy measurement technology which has been developed in recent years. As a slope measurement technology, PMD possesses a high sensitivity. Very small slope variation will lead to a large variation of the phase. PMD is very possible to have a good performance in the wafer inspection. In this paper, the requirements of the wafer inspection in the industries are discussed, and compatibility of PMD and those requirements is analyzed. In the experimental work, PMD gets the slope information of the wafer surface directly. The curvature or height information can be acquired simply by the derivation or integral of the slope. PMD is proved to make a superior result in high-precision defect detecting and shape measurement of wafer by the analysis of experiment results.
Fringe projection profilometry (FPP) has been widely used for 3-D surface shape measurement with the features of high accuracy, non-contact and fast speed. In FPP, the phase distribution is extracted from the captured distorted fringe pattern, and the height information could subsequently be obtained by the phase-height relation. In actual measurement, the captured pattern usually contains noises, which will influence the precision of the reconstructed result. In order to increase the accuracy of measurement, noise reduction procedure to these fringe patterns is required. The existing noise reducing methods (such as Fourier transform, Wavelet transform) have certain effect. However, they will eliminate some high frequencies generated by a surface with sharp change and make the image blurring. In this paper, we use Curvelet transform to enhance the accuracy of measurement in FPP. The Curvelet transform has the ability of multiscale and multidirection analysis in image processing. It has better descriptions of edges and detailed information of images. Simulations and the experimental results show that the Curvelet transform has an excellent performance in image denoising and it has a wonderful effect on accuracy enhancement of complex surface shape measurement in FPP.
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