KEYWORDS: Microelectromechanical systems, Interferometers, Demodulation, Optical fibers, Finite element methods, Actuators, Fiber optics, Interferometry, Digital signal processing, Systems modeling
We present the integration of an optical fiber interferometer with a MEMS probe station for measuring the out-of-plane
displacement of MEMS structures. The interferometric system presented uses a phase generated carrier demodulation
scheme. Digital signal processing techniques provide a theoretical measurement dynamic range greater than 108.
Experimental results characterizing a novel vertical-lift
electro-thermal actuator are presented. These results are in good
agreement with modeling data based on finite element analysis.
Several microactuator technologies have recently been investigated for positioning individual elements in large-scale microelectromechanical systems (MEMS). Electrostatic, magnetostatic, piezoelectric and thermal expansion are the most common modes of microactuator operation. This research focuses on the design and experimental characterization of two types of asymmetrical MEMS electrothermal microactuators. The motivation is to present a unified description of the behavior of the electrothermal microactuator so that it can be adapted to a variety of MEMS applications.
Several microactuator technologies have recently been investigated for positioning individual elements in large-scale microelectromechanical systems (MEMS). Electrostatic, magnetostatic, piezoelectric and thermal expansion are the most common modes of microactuator operation. This research focuses on the design and experimental characterization of two types of asymmetrical MEMS electrothermal microactuators. The motivation is to present a unified description of the behavior of the electrothermal microactuator so that it can be adapted to a variety of MEMS applications. Both MEMS polysilicon electrothermal microactuator design variants use resistive (Joule) heating to generate thermal expansion and movement. In a conventional electrothermal microactuator, the hot arm is positioned parallel to a cold arm, but because the hot arm is narrower than the cold arm, the electrical resistance of the hot arm is higher. When an electric curren passes through the microactuator (through the series connected electrical resistance of the hot and cold arms), the hot arm is heated to a higher temperature than the cold arm. This temperature increase causes the hot arm to expand along its length, thus forcing the tip of the device to rotate about a mechanical flexure element. The new thermal actuator design eliminates the parasitic electrical resistance of the cold arm by incorporating an additional hot arm. The second hot arm results in an improvement in electrical efficiency by providing an active return current path. Additionally, the rotating cold arm can have a narrower flexure than the flexure in a conventional single-hot arm device because it does not have to pass an electric current. The narrower flexure element results in an improvement in mechanical efficiency. Deflection and force measurements of both actuators as a function of applied electrical power are presented.
Five types of micromirror arrays were designed and fabricated using a three-level, polysilicon, surface micromachined, micro-electromechanical systems (MEMS) process. The electrostatically deflectable micromirror designs included arrays of simple cantilever beams, torsion beams, tethered (piston-style) beams, circular membranes, and oval membranes. The smallest micromirror element was the simple cantilever beam, measuring 50 micrometer square. The largest micromirror element was the oval membrane; it possessed an active optical surface that was 320 micrometer by 920 micrometer. Each of the remaining micromirror designs have gold-coated polysilicon optical surfaces with geometries between these two limits. Electrostatically induced vertical deflections on the order of 2.75 micrometer were achieved. The torsion beam micromirror design exhibits both in-plane and out-of-plane deflection. The other micromirror designs only manifest in-plane deflections. The modeling phase focused on the microdynamical behavior of the torsion beam micromirror. The IntelliCADR finite element analysis program was used to generate a plot of the micromirror's deflection (d) versus applied direct current voltage (V). The data was least-squares fitted to the well- established V varies direct as d3/2 relationship. A resonant frequency analysis predicted an approximate switching speed of 6 microseconds. The reliability (number of operational cycles) of each micromirror design, when operated with a rectified 60 Hz alternating current (ac) signal, was measured to exceed more than 1 million flexure events. Experimental evidence supporting the potential for using micromirrors as binary optical switches and amplitude modulators is also addressed.
A novel gas-sensitive microsensor, whose design is based upon the interdigitated-gate-electrode field-effect transistor was realized by integrating it with ia selectively-deposited, chemically-active, electron-beam evaporated copper phthalocyanine (CuPc) thin film. When isothermally operated at 150 degrees C, the microsensor can selectively and reversibly detect parts-per-billion (ppb) concentration levels of two environmentally-sensitive pollutants, nitrogen dioxide (NO2) and diisopropyl methylphosphonate (DIMP). Although the CuPc thin film chemically and electrically interacts with NO2 and DIMP, just as it will likely interact with other electrically- active gases, or combinations thereof, the selectivity feature of the microsensor was established by operating it with a 5-V peak amplitude, 2-microsecond(s) duration, 1000 Hz repetition frequency pulse, and then analyzing its time- and frequency-domain responses. As a direct consequence of this analysis, the envelopes associated with the normalized- difference Fourier transform magnitude frequency spectra reveal features which unambiguously distinguish the NO2 and DIMP challenge gas responses. Furthermore, the area beneath each response envelope may correspondingly be interpreted as a metric for the microsensor's sensitivity to a specific challenge gas concentration. Scanning electron microscopy was used to characterize the CuPc thin film's morphology. Additionally, infrared spectroscopy was employed to verify the (alpha) - and (beta) -phases of the sublimed CuPc thin films and to study the NO2- and DIMP-CuPc interactions.
A miniature gas chromatography (GC) system has been designed and fabricated using silicon micromachining and integrated circuit (IC) processing techniques. The silicon micromachined gas chromatography system (SMGCS) is composed of a miniature sample injector that incorporates a 10 (mu) l sample loop; a 0.9-m long, rectangular-shaped capillary column coated with a 0.2-micrometers thick copper phthalocyanine (CuPc) stationary-phase; and a dual- detector scheme based upon a CuPc-coated chemiresistor and a commercially available, 125- micrometers diameter thermal conductivity detector bead. Silicon micromachining was employed to fabricate the interface between the sample injector and the GC column, the column itself, and the dual-detector cavity. A novel IC thin-film processing technique was developed to sublime the CuPc stationary-phase coating on the column walls that were micromachined in the host silicon wafer substrate and Pyrex cover plate, which were then electrostatically bonded together. The SMGCS can separate binary gas mixtures composed of parts-per-million (ppm) concentrations of ammonia and nitrogen dioxide when isothermally operated (55-80 degrees C). With a helium carrier gas and nitrogen diluent, a 10 (mu) l sample volume containing ammonia and nitrogen dioxide injected at 40 psi (2.8 X 105 Pa) can be separated in less than 30 minutes.
Advanced semiconductor detection devices incorporate surface texturing to reduce reflection of the incident radiation, and thus, enhance optical absorption through scattering. Using micromachining techniques, three different silicon surfaces were fabricated, optically characterized, and analyzed in terms of their ability to scatter incident optical energy. The fabricated surfaces consist of: randomly sized and spaced pyramids (RSSPs), deep vertical- wall grooves (DVWGs), and porous silicon. The DVWG structures consist of interdigitated, 270 micrometers deep, 25 micrometers wide, and 1000 micrometers long grooves separated by 5 micrometers wide walls. The RSSP textured surfaces consist of pyramids with random 0.5-12.0 micrometers square base widths and heights, but otherwise consistent shape and symmetry. The pyramid walls make an angle of 54.74 degrees with respect to the sample surface. Porous silicon samples consist of surfaces with etched random pores that are 0.2-5 micrometers in depth, 1-5 micrometers in length, and 0.1-5 micrometers in width. Utilizing a laser scatterometry, the bidirectional reflectance distribution function (BRDF) of silicon textured surfaces has been measured at commercially available laser wavelengths of 1.06 and 10.6 micrometers . A highly- polished, single-crystal silicon wafer was used as a reference surface. The three micromachined surfaces showed an enhanced scatter at 1.06 micrometers as demonstrated by a reduced specular peak and increased average BRDF. The RSSP textured surface also demonstrated a low BRDF at 10.6 micrometers incident laser wavelength.
A magnetostrictive fiber optic interferometric sensor that detects low-intensity magnetic fields has been realized. The sensor is fabricated with 850-nm, single-mode fiber optic cable and couplers configured in a Mach-Zehnder interferometric arrangements. Four sensing arm configurations were fabricated where the magnetostrictive material was geometrically coupled to the fiber optic cable as a: ribbon, cylinder, sandwich, and sputter-coated sheath. The four classes of sensing arms were evaluated using MetglasTM, nickel, and a combination of MetglasTM and nickel. Optimization techniques were applied to maximize the sensor's sensitivity. These techniques included: annealing the magnetostrictive material, operating the magnetic field over a range of frequencies, applying a DC bias current to the Helmholtz coil's AC current component, and fabricating sensing arms with polarization maintaining fiber optic cable. The measurements employing the various sensor arm classes revealed that the lowest detectable magnetic flux density was 0.3 mG. This result was achieved using a MetglasTM ribbon-fiber optic cable configuration where the ribbon's magnetization direction was aligned perpendicularly with the applied 52 kHz AC magnetic field that had a 5- volt DC bias. When operating this configuration with a 10 Hz AC magnetic field that had a 5- volt DC bias, the lowest magnetic flux density that could be detected was 8.9 mG.
Advanced solar cells and optical detection devices incorporate surface texturing to reduce reflection of the incident radiation and, thus, enhance optical absorption. Using micromachining techniques, three different silicon surfaces were fabricated, optically characterized, and analyzed in terms of their ability to reduce optical reflectance. The fabricated surfaces consisted of: randomly sized and spaced pyramids (RSSPs), deep vertical- wall grooves (DVWGs) and porous silicon (PS). Three regions of the optical spectrum were investigated: visible (500 - 900 nm), near-infrared (1.25 - 2.5 micrometers ), and mid-infrared (2.5 - 12.5 micrometers ). A highly-polished, single-crystal silicon wafer was used as a reference surface. The following results were experimentally determined. The RSSP surfaces decrease the reflectance by more than 69% over the entire measured spectrum. The DVWG surfaces reduce the reflectance by 85% in the visible region, 34% in the near-infrared range, and 14% over the mid-infrared wavelengths. Both thin (pore depths less than 1 micrometers ) and thick (pore depths greater than 5 micrometers ) PS surfaces were investigated. The thick PS revealed better results compared to the thin PS, demonstrating 91% reflectance reduction in the visible region, a 7% reduction in the near-infrared range, and 53% reduction over the mid-infrared wavelengths.
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