ECM stiffness is a potential instructive cue during capillary morphogenesis. Bulk measurements have often been used to investigate matrix stiffness as a cellular cue. However, local peri-cellular stiffness can be heterogeneous and vary greatly from measured bulk properties spatially and temporally. Here, we utilize bulk rheology and optical tweezers active microrheology (AMR) to investigate the dynamic mechanical crosstalk between cells and the surrounding matrix during capillary morphogenesis across length scales with various supporting stromal cells. We will present our current findings focusing on the discrepancies between bulk and microrheological distributions of measured stiffness across different stromal cell types.
Studies of cell-extracellular matrix (ECM) interactions within fibrous systems such as collagen or fibrin are challenging, particularly if peri-cellular stiffness cannot be monitored. Here we present our light-based method for non-invasive patterning of molecular crosslinking combined with multi-axes optical tweezers active microrheology to map ECM stiffness landscapes. This method allows us to generate prescribed stiffness gradients and associated anisotropies, which model stiffness of the natural peri-cellular ECM. Patterned crosslinking induces strain hardening and measured stiffness gradients are in agreement with predicted strain fields. Migratory cells respond to these gradients as assessed by change in F-actin distribution and morphological properties.
Epithelial breast cells, which are involved in the production of milk fats, display altered lipid metabolism when they grow more malignant. At the same time, breast cancer cells show a higher degree of glycolysis, a mechanism to meet an increased demand for biomass as cells proliferate. Somewhat counterintuitively, breast cancer cells exhibit lower amounts of stored lipid, while glycolysis rates are up. We have investigated the kinetics of glycolysis, lipid synthesis, and lipid consumption rates in healthy and diseased epithelial breast cells. Using stimulated Raman scattering (SRS) microscopy of deuterated precursors, the cellular chemistry can be followed in space and time, revealing a clear link between glycolytic rate and the kinetics of lipid metabolism.
Islet transplantation has been used to treat diabetes, but is faced with various challenges such as the unavailability of donor organs and the requirement for immunosuppression. Islet encapsulation is a promising solution to some of these problems, helping to achieve insulin independence over longer time. Currently, the standard method to evaluate the encapsulation quality is based on manual microscopic screening of the sample, which is extremely low-throughput and laborious, due to the limited field-of-view (FOV) of standard optical microscopes. Here we report a high-throughput islet encapsulation quality screening system based on lens-free on-chip imaging, which can image/analyze over ~8,000 microcapsules in a single shot. The system utilizes a large format CMOS image sensor that has 60 megapixels, providing a sample FOV of 18.15cm2, which is >100-fold larger than the FOV of a lens-based optical microscope. The encapsulated islets are loaded into a custom-made chamber, which is placed onto the image sensor chip with <2mm gap between the sample and sensor planes. A blue LED provides illumination of the sample, casting in-line holograms of the islets onto the image sensor, which is then analyzed by a custom-written image reconstruction and processing software. The total count of the microcapsules, their size, intactness and whether they contain an islet or not, are analyzed, with the results provided to the user. Being high-throughput, low-cost and simple, this platform can be used for researchers to develop encapsulation protocols as well as a quality control tool before the actual transplantation into patients.
Pancreatic islet transplantation is a promising approach of providing insulin in type 1 diabetes. One strategy to protect islets from the host immune system is encapsulation within a porous biocompatible alginate membrane. This encapsulation provides mechanical support to the cells and allows selective diffusion of oxygen, nutrients and insulin while blocking immunoglobulins. These hydrogels form by diffusion of calcium ions into the polymer network and therefore they are highly sensitive to environmental changes and fluctuations in temperature. We investigated the effects of gel concentration, crosslinking time and ambient conditions on material permeability, volume, and rigidity, all of which may change the immunoisolating characteristics of alginate. To measure diffusion coefficient as a method to capture structural changes we studied the diffusion of fluorescently tagged dextrans of different molecular weight into the midplane of alginate microcapsules, the diffusion coefficient is then calculated by fitting observed fluorescence dynamics to the mathematical solution of 1-D diffusion into a sphere. These measurements were performed after incubation in different conditions as well as after an in vivo experiment in six immunocompetent mice for seven days. Additionally, the changes in gel volume after incubation at different temperatures and environmental conditions as well as changes in compression modulus of alginate gels during crosslinking were investigated. Our result show that increase of polymer concentration and crosslinking time leads to a decrease in volume and increase in compression modulus. Furthermore, we found that samples crosslinked and placed in physiological environment, experience an increase in volume. As expected, these volume changes affect diffusion rates of fluorescent dextrans, where volume expansion is correlated with higher calculated diffusion coefficient. This observation is critical to islet protection since higher permeability due to the expansion in vivo may lead to increased permeability to immunoglobulins. Capsules from the in vivo study showed similar volume expansion and increased permeability, indicating our in vitro assay is a good predictor of volume change in vivo.
Cellular therapies hold promise to replace the implantation of whole organs in the treatment of disease. For most cell types, in vivo viability depends on oxygen delivery to avoid the toxic effects of hypoxia. A promising approach is the in situ vascularization of implantable devices which can mediate hypoxia and improve both the lifetime and utility of implanted cells and tissues. Although mathematical models and bulk measurements of oxygenation in surrounding tissue have been used to estimate oxygenation within devices, such estimates are insufficient in determining if supplied oxygen is sufficient for the entire thickness of the implanted cells and tissues. We have developed a technique in which oxygen-sensitive microparticles (OSMs) are incorporated into the volume of subcutaneously implantable devices. Oxygen partial pressure within these devices can be measured directly in vivo by an optical probe placed on the skin surface. As validation, OSMs have been incorporated into alginate beads, commonly used as immunoisolation devices to encapsulate pancreatic islet cells. Alginate beads were implanted into the subcutaneous space of Sprague–Dawley rats. Oxygen transport through beads was characterized from dynamic OSM signals in response to changes in inhaled oxygen. Changes in oxygen dynamics over days demonstrate the utility of our technology.
KEYWORDS: Capillaries, 3D image reconstruction, Holograms, 3D image processing, Microscopy, Holography, Sensors, Digital holography, Computational imaging, Imaging systems
Endothelial cells cultured in three-dimensional (3-D) extracellular matrices spontaneously form microvessels in response to soluble and matrix-bound factors. Such cultures are common for the study of angiogenesis and may find widespread use in drug discovery. Vascular networks are imaged over weeks to measure the distribution of vessel morphogenic parameters. Measurements require micron-scale spatial resolution, which for light microscopy comes at the cost of limited field-of-view (FOV) and shallow depth-of-focus (DOF). Small FOVs and DOFs necessitate lateral and axial mechanical scanning, thus limiting imaging throughput. We present a lens-free holographic on-chip microscopy technique to rapidly image microvessels within a Petri dish over a large volume without any mechanical scanning. This on-chip method uses partially coherent illumination and a CMOS sensor to record in-line holographic images of the sample. For digital reconstruction of the measured holograms, we implement a multiheight phase recovery method to obtain phase images of capillary morphogenesis over a large FOV (24 mm 2 ) with ∼1.5 μm spatial resolution. On average, measured capillary length in our method was within approximately 2% of lengths measured using a 10× microscope objective. These results suggest lens-free on-chip imaging is a useful toolset for high-throughput monitoring and quantitative analysis of microvascular 3-D networks.
We combine laser tweezers with custom computer tracking software and robotics to analyze the motility [swimming speed, VCL (curvilinear velocity), and swimming force in terms of escape laser power (Pesc)] and energetics [mitochondrial membrane potential (MP)] of individual sperm. Domestic dog sperm are labeled with a cationic fluorescent probe, DiOC2(3), that reports the MP across the inner membrane of the mitochondria located in the sperm's midpiece. Individual sperm are tracked to calculate VCL. Pesc is measured by reducing the laser power after the sperm is trapped using laser tweezers until the sperm is capable of escaping the trap. The MP is measured every second over a 5-s interval during the tracking phase (sperm is swimming freely) and continuously during the trapping phase. The effect of the fluorescent probe on sperm motility is addressed. The sensitivity of the probe is measured by assessing the effects of a mitochondrial uncoupling agent (CCCP) on MP of free swimming sperm. The effects of prolonged exposed to the laser tweezers on VCL and MP are analyzed. The system's capabilities are demonstrated by measuring VCL, Pesc, and MP simultaneously for individual sperm. This combination of imaging tools is useful to quantitatively assess sperm quality and viability.
In this study, 532-nm picosecond and 800-nm femtosecond lasers are used in combination with fluorescently labeled tubulin to further elucidate microtubule depolymerization and the effect lasers may have on the resulting depolymerization. Depolymerization rates of targeted single microtubules are dependent on location with respect to the nucleus. Microtubules located near the nucleus exhibit a significantly faster depolymerization rate when compared to microtubule depolymerization rates near the periphery of the cell. Microtubules cut with the femtosecond laser depolymerize at a slower rate than unirradiated controls (p=0.002), whereas those cut with the picosecond laser depolymerize at the same rate as unirradiated controls (p=0.704). Our results demonstrate the ability of both the picosecond and femtosecond lasers to cut individual microtubules. The differences between the two ablation results are discussed.
In previous studies we have shown that the second harmonic 532 nm, from a picosecond frequency doubled Nd:YAG laser, can cleanly and selectively disrupt spindle fiber microtubules in live cells (Botvinick et al 2004, Biophys. J. 87:4303-4212). In the present study we have ablated different locations and amounts of the metaphase mitotic spindle, and followed the cells in order to observe the fate of the irradiated spindle and the ability of the cell to continue through mitosis. Cells of the rat kangaroo line (PTK2) were stably transfected by ECFP-tubulin and, using fluorescent microscopy and the automated RoboLase microscope, (Botvinick and Berns, 2005, Micros. Res. Tech. 68:65-74) brightly fluorescent individual cells in metaphase were irradiated with 0.2447 nJ/micropulse corresponding to an irradiance of 1.4496*10^7 J/(ps*cm^2) . Upon irradiation the exposed part of the mitotic spindle immediately lost fluorescence and the following events were observed in the cells over time: (1) immediate contraction of the spindle pole towards the cut, (2) recovery of connection between pole and cut microtubule, (3) completion of mitosis. This system should be very useful in studying internal cellular dynamics of the mitotic spindle.
This paper describes a robust single sperm tracking algorithm (SSTA) that can be used in laser optical trapping and sperm motility studies. The algorithm creates a region of interest (ROI) centered about a sperm selected by the user. SSTA contrast enhances the ROI image and implements a modified four-class thresholding method to extract the tracked sperm as it transitions in and out of focus. The nearest neighbor method is complemented with a speed-check feature to aid tracking in the presence of additional sperm or other particles. SSTA has a collision-detection feature for real or perceived collision or near-miss cases between two sperm. Subsequent postcollision analysis employs three criteria to distinguish the tracked sperm in the image. The efficacy of SSTA is validated through examples and comparisons to commercially available computer-aided sperm tracking systems.
Sperm cells from a domestic dog were treated with oxacarbocyanine DiOC2(3), a ratiometrically-encoded membrane potential fluorescent probe in order to monitor the mitochondria stored in an individual sperm's midpiece. This dye normally emits a red fluorescence near 610 nm as well as a green fluorescence near 515 nm. The ratio of red to green fluorescence provides a substantially accurate and precise measurement of sperm midpiece membrane potential. A two-level computer system has been developed to quantify the motility and energetics of sperm using video rate tracking, automated laser trapping (done by the upper-level system) and fluorescent imaging (done by the lower-level system). The communication between these two systems is achieved by a networked gigabit TCP/IP cat5e crossover connection. This allows for the curvilinear velocity (VCL) and ratio of the red to green fluorescent images of individual sperm to be written to the hard drive at video rates. This two-level automatic system has increased experimental throughput over our previous single-level system (Mei et al., 2005) by an order of magnitude.
This study examines the use of optical trapping as a quantitative measure of sperm motility. The effects of laser trap duration and laser trapping power on sperm motility are described between sperm swimming force, swimmimg speed, and speed of progression (SOP) score. Sperm (SOP scores of 2–4) were trapped by a continuous-wave 1064 nm single-point gradient laser trap. Trap duration effects were quantified for 15, 10, and 5 seconds at 420 mW laser power. Laser power effects were quantified at powers of 420 mW, 350 mW, 300 mW, and 250 mW for five seconds. Swimming force, swimming speed, and SOP score relationships were examined at a trap duration and trapping power shown to minimally affect sperm motility. Swimming forces were measured by trapping sperm and subsequently decreasing laser power until the sperm escaped the trap. Swimming trajectories were calculated by custom-built software, and SOP scores were assigned by three qualified sperm scoring experts. A ubiquitous class of sperm were identified that swim with relatively high forces that are uncorrelated to swimming speed. It is concluded that sperm swimming forces measured by optical trapping provide new and valuable quantitative information to assess sperm motility.
The purpose of this study is to seek a correlation between the swimming forces of sperm, their swimming speed and the speed of progression score (SOP), which is given to them by the generally applied subjective 1 - 5 system. This study also examines the effects of length of exposure to the laser trap and laser power on sperm motility. Sperm with SOPs of 2-4 were trapped by a continuous wave 1064 nm single point gradient laser trap. To study trap duration effects, sperm were trapped for fifteen, ten and five seconds at 420mW laser power. To study laser power effects within the trap, powers of 420mW, 350mW, 300mW, and 250mW were applied for a constant duration (5 seconds). The correlations between sperm swimming force, swimming speed and speed of progression were examined at a trap duration and trapping power that were statistically shown to not significantly affect sperm motility. Swimming forces were measured by trapping sperm and subsequently decreasing laser power until the sperm were capable of escaping the trap (escape laser power is directly proportional to swimming force). Swimming speeds were calculated by custom built software, and speed of progression scores were assigned in a blind study by fertility experts examining offline video of the experiments. Sperm swimming force measurements by optical trapping may be a method to quantitatively measure sperm vitality that augments currently used methods.
As a powerful and noninvasive tool, laser trapping has been widely applied for the confinement and physiological study of biological cells and organelles. Researchers have used the single spot laser trap to hold individual sperm and quantitatively evaluated the motile force generated by a sperm. Early studies revealed the relationship between sperm motility and swimming behavior and helped the investigations in medical aspects of sperm activity. As sperm chemotaxis draws more and more interest in fertilization research, the studies on sperm-egg communication may help to explain male or female infertility and provide exciting new approaches to contraception. However, single spot laser trapping can only be used to investigate an individual target, which has limits in efficiency and throughput. To study the chemotactic response of sperm to eggs and to characterize sperm motility, an annular laser trap with a diameter of several hundred microns is designed, simulated with ray tracing tool, and implemented. An axicon transforms the wavefront such that the laser beam is incident on the microscope objective from all directions while filling the back aperture completely for high efficiency trapping. A trapping experiment with microspheres is carried out to evaluate the system performance. The power requirement for annular sperm trapping is determined experimentally and compared with theoretical calculations. With a chemo-attractant located in the center and sperm approaching from all directions, the annular laser trapping could serve as a speed bump for sperm so that motility characterization and fertility sorting can be performed efficiently.
Sperm motility is an important area in understanding male infertility. Various techniques, such as the Computer Assisted Sperm Analysis (CASA), have been used to understand sperm motility. Sperm motility is related to the energy (ATP) production of sperm. ATP is produced by the depolarization of the membrane potential of the inner membrane of the mitochondria. In this study, a mitochondrial dye, JC-1, has been used to monitor the energetics of the mitochondria. This fluorescent dye can emit at two different wavelengths, depending on the membrane potential of the mitochondria. It can fluoresce green at low membrane potential and red at high membrane potential. The ratio of the two colors (red/green) allows for an accurate measurement of the change of membrane potential. Various experiments were conducted to quantify the behavior of the dye within the sperm and the reaction of the sperm to trap. Sperm were trapped using laser tweezers. Results have shown that the ratio drops dramatically when sperm are trapped, indicating a depolarization of the membrane. The physiological response to this depolarization is yet to be determined, but the studies indicate that the sperm could have been slightly damaged by the laser. However, knowing that sperm depolarizes their membrane when trapped can help understand how sperm react to their environment and consequently help treat male infertility.
KEYWORDS: Confocal microscopy, Digital micromirror devices, Mirrors, Microscopes, Micromirrors, 3D image processing, In vivo imaging, Objectives, Stereoscopy, Raster graphics
There is a growing need for developing 3D quantitative imaging tools that can operate at high speed enabling real-time visualization for the field of biology, material science, and the semiconductor industry. We will present our 3D quantitative imaging system based on a confocal microscope built with a Texas Instruments Digital Micromirror Device (DMD). By using the DMD as a spatial light modulator, confocal transverse surface (x, y) scanning can be performed in parallel at speeds faster than video rate without physical movement of the sample. The DMD allows us to programmably configure the source and the detection pinhole array in the lateral direction to achieve the best signal and to reduce the crosstalk noise. Investigations of the microcirculation were performed on 40 g to 45 g golden Syrian hamsters fit with dorsal skin fold window chambers. FITC-Dextran or Red blood cells from donor hamsters, stained with Celltracker CM-DiI, were injected into the circulation and imaged with the confocal microscope. We will present the measured results for the axial resolution, in vivo, as well as experimental results from imaging the window chamber.
KEYWORDS: Confocal microscopy, Mirrors, Digital micromirror devices, Micromirrors, Microscopes, Objectives, Blood, Signal to noise ratio, Luminescence, In vivo imaging
Confocal microscopy is used widely for 3D biological imaging, but can be too slow for many applications. The limitations arise from scanning a single spot across the specimen at high speeds. Singe-spot confocal imaging usually works at a 1-2 Hz frame rate and faster systems tend to be signal/noise limited. Many live cellular events require both high speed and high SNR. Some parallel confocal systems have been developed to collect light from many points simultaneously to obtain high SNR and/or speed. Nipkow disks are compared of many pinholes, but have a fixed pattern and low light efficiency. Slit scanning systems collect an entire video line at a time, but compromise resolution. The TI Digital Micromirror Device (offers an alternative via large arrays of rapidly re-configurable micromirrors that can form arrays of reflection 'pinholes'. The prototype presented here exhibited 0.4 X 0.4 X 0.8 micrometers 3 resolution with a 100X 0.90 NA objective. An array of 10,000 or more neighborhoods, each compromising a single ON mirror in a group of OFF mirrors, creates the confocal parallelism. Alternating the ON mirror in each neighborhood until the image is completely formed on the CCD sensor enables transverse scanning. With 10,000-fold parallelism, for example, light collection efficiency and frame rate can both be 100X higher than in typical spot scanning. The high sensitivity allows high-speed confocal imaging at intensities below the cellular fluorotoxicity threshold. This was demonstrated in a hamster window preparation scanned daily in one-week longitudinal studies. Vessel geometry and localized blood flow were reconstructed to measure perfusion. High frame rate and sensitivity allowed real-time visualization of DiI stained intravascular red blood cells with no apparent tissue damage, supporting the tremendous potential advantages over current confocal technologies.
KEYWORDS: Confocal microscopy, Digital micromirror devices, Microscopes, Mirrors, 3D image processing, Objectives, 3D image reconstruction, Imaging systems, 3D metrology, Profilometers
Confocal microscopy is a powerful tool that has been used in the development of 3D profilometers for depth-section image capture and surface measurements. Previously developed confocal microscopes operated by scanning a single point, or array of points, over the surface of a sample. The 3D profilometer we constructed acquires measurement data using a confocal microscopy technique, where transverse surface scanning is performed by a digital micromirror device (DMD). The DMD is imaged onto the object's surface allowing for confocal surface scanning of the field of view at a rate faster than video rate without physical movement of the sample. 3D reconstruction is performed a posteriori from stacks of 2D image planes acquired at different depths. A description of the experimental setup with system design issues and solutions are presented. Backscatter noise and diffraction noise due to the periodic micromirror structure is minimized using spatial filtering and polarization coding techniques. Using a 100x objective, the longitudinal point spread function was measured at 2.1 micrometers , with simultaneous transverse resolution of 228.0 lines/mm. The optical resolution performance of our microscope with real-time scanning provided by the DMD, is shown to be effectively equivalent to those of conventional confocal microscopes. The 3D images capabilities of our scanning system using the DMD were demonstrated on various objects.
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