A multi-spectral imaging system was built from low cost components: LEDs and an area-scan camera, that are all housed within a case and controlled by a tablet computer. The system can capture images of tissue at 14 different wavelengths in <10 seconds. Spectra derived from different lateral positions in the images were then fit to a theoretical model based on GPU Monte Carlo simulations in order to estimate the scattering and absorption properties of the tissue at different layers. To better characterize the system’s ability to measure changes in tissue oxy- and deoxyhemoglobin content, images of the forearm of healthy volunteers were imaged before, during, and after short term ischemia and then reperfusion of the arm, which lowered the amount of oxyhemoglobin in the tissue. To decrease tissue oxygen saturation, blood flow to the arm was restricted for 120 sec using a sphygmomanometer (blood pressure cuff), with pressure levels of 170 mm Hg. Repeated measurements were captured with the arm held in a special mount with an aperture built to fix the tissue in place. Overall, the before, during, and after spectra, where there are notable differences between oxy and deoxy-hemoglobin. The analyses showed a significant decrease in oxygen saturation of the venous plexus layer, with moderate changes in blood content. However, changes in the error function were much more sensitive to blood content than oxygen saturation. These results suggest that changes in oxygen saturation levels can be measured using a low cost setup, although at lower accuracy relative to blood content.
Background: When running large trials, histopathology services are used to assess the state of a tissue. However, in many clinics in low resource settings there are large variations in quality of such services, specifically in biopsy processing and histopathological interpretation/assessment of images. Quality assurance (QA) is needed, but it involves physically mailing slides to a remote clinic. A telemedicine solution can address this challenge. Methods: A novel smartphone adapter for microscopes was developed, consisting of a 3D printed attachment and software integration for the image capture. The attachment is used to couple the eyepiece of a low end microscope to a smartphone (Samsung J530). Image capture was controlled through the EVA System app. The entire system was characterized optically using standard calibration targets. Additionally, images captured on the attachment were compared to the standard method of shipping and scanning slides in a high end slice scanner at a remote clinic. Results: The resolution of the entire system (microscope + phone) with a 40X objective was <1 μm. The system is currently undergoing testing in Nigeria as part of a broader cervical cancer screening study.1 Preliminary testing showed similar image quality between the smartphone-based system and high end scanner. Whole slide imaging requires stitching together images into a mosaic, made possible by a mobile application. Conclusion: The results here show that coupling a low end microscope to a smartphone yields similar results to a transporting slides to a high end microscope. Such an attachment can thus potentially provide a telemedicine solution to researchers in low resource settings.
Optical spectral images can be used to estimate the amount of bulk absorbers in tissues, specifically oxy- and deoxyhemoglobin, as well as scattering parameters. Most systems that capture spectral image data are large, heavy, and expensive. This paper presents a full end-to-end analysis of a low-cost reflectance-mode multispectral imaging system operating in the visible and near-infrared spectra. The system consists of 13 LEDs mounted on a printed circuit board, a monochrome machine vision camera, and a tablet computer to control the hardware. The bill of materials for the system is less than $1000. Hardware design and implementation are detailed. Calibration, image capture, and preprocessing are also discussed. In validation experiments, excellent agreement is observed in diffuse reflectance measurements between the spectral camera setup and a spectrometer. To demonstrate that such spectral image data can yield meaningful optical measurements in vivo, the forearms of eight volunteers are imaged in the system. Their data are then analyzed to estimate the tissue optical properties of different skin layers using a Monte Carlo lookup table. In three volunteers, spectral images are captured before and after inducing erythema using a warm wet towel. Across the three subjects, a clear increase in the blood content of the superficial plexus layer was observed as a result of the erythema. Collectively, these findings suggest that a low-cost system can capture accurate spectral data and that clinically meaningful information can be derived from it.
Cervical cancer is a leading cause of death for women in low resource settings. In order to better detect cervical dysplasia, a low cost multi-spectral colposcope was developed utilizing low costs LEDs and an area scan camera. The device is capable of both traditional colposcopic imaging and multi-spectral image capture. Following initial bench testing, the device was deployed to a gynecology clinic where it was used to image patients in a colposcopy setting. Both traditional colposcopic images and spectral data from patients were uploaded to a cloud server for remote analysis. Multi-spectral imaging (~30 second capture) took place before any clinical procedure; the standard of care was followed thereafter. If acetic acid was used in the standard of care, a post-acetowhitening colposcopic image was also captured. In analyzing the data, normal and abnormal regions were identified in the colposcopic images by an expert clinician. Spectral data were fit to a theoretical model based on diffusion theory, yielding information on scattering and absorption parameters. Data were grouped according to clinician labeling of the tissue, as well as any additional clinical test results available (Pap, HPV, biopsy). Altogether, N=20 patients were imaged in this study, with 9 of them abnormal. In comparing normal and abnormal regions of interest from patients, substantial differences were measured in blood content, while differences in oxygen saturation parameters were more subtle. These results suggest that optical measurements made using low cost spectral imaging systems can distinguish between normal and pathological tissues.
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