Additive manufacture (AM) involves creating a part layer by layer and is a rapidly evolving manufacturing process. It has multiple strengths that apply to space-based optics, such as the ability to consolidate multiple parts into one, reducing the number of interfaces. The process also allows for greater mass reduction, making parts more cost-effective to launch, achieved by optimising the shape for intended use or creating intricate geometries like lattices. However, previous studies have highlighted issues associated with the AM process. For example, when trying to achieve high-precision optical surfaces on AM parts, the latticing on the underside of mirrors can provide insufficient support during machining, resulting in the quilting effect. This paper builds on previous work and explores such challenges further. This will be implemented by investigating ways to apply AM to a deployable mirror from a CubeSat project called A-DOT. The reflective surface has a spherical radius of curvature of 682 mm and approximate external dimensions of 106 x 83 mm. The aim is to produce two mirrors that will take full advantage of AM design benefits and account for the challenges in printing and machining a near-net shape. The designs will have reduced mass by using selected internal lattice designs and topologyoptimised connection points, resulting in two mirrors with mass reduction targets of 50% and 70%. Once printed in aluminium using laser powder bed fusion, the reflective surface will be created using single point diamond turning. Finally, an evaluation of the dimensional accuracy will be conducted, using interferometry, to quantify the performance of the reflective surface.
Additive manufacturing (AM; 3D printing), which builds a structure layer-by-layer, has clear benefits in the production of lightweight mirrors for astronomy, as it can create optimised lightweight structures and combine multiple components into one. AM aluminium mirrors have been reported that demonstrate a 44% reduction in mass from an equivalent solid and the consolidation of nine parts into one. However, there is a limit on the micro-roughness that can be achieved using AM aluminium at ∼5nm RMS (root mean square; Sq), therefore, to target applications at shorter wavelengths alternative AM materials are required. New capabilities in AM ceramics, silicon carbide infiltrated with silicon (SiC + Si) and fused silica, offer the possibility to combine the design benefits of AM with a material suitable for visible, ultraviolet and x-ray applications.
This paper will introduce the different printing methods and post-processing steps to convert AM ceramic samples into reflective mirrors. The samples are flat disks, 50mm diameter and 5mm in height, with three samples printed in SiC + Si and three printed in fused silica. Early results in polishing the SiC + Si material demonstrated that a micro-roughness of ∼2nm Sq could be achieved. To build on this study, the 50mm SiC + Si samples had three different AM finishing steps to explore the best approach for abrasive lapping and polishing, the reflective surfaces achieved demonstrated micro-roughness values varied between 2nm and 5nm Sq for the different AM finishing steps. To date, the printed fused silica material has heritage in lens applications; however, its suitability for mirror fabrication was to be determined. Abrasive lapping and polishing was used to process the fused silica to reflective surface and an average micro-roughness of <1nm Sq achieved on the samples.
Lightweight optical manufacture is no longer confined to the conventional subtractive (mill and drill), formative (casting and forging) and fabricative (bonding and fixing) manufacturing methods. Additive manufacturing (AM; 3D printing), creating a part layer-by-layer, provides new opportunities to reduce mass and combine multiple parts into one structure. Frequently, modern astronomical telescopes and instruments, ground- and space-based, are limited in mass and volume, and are complex to assemble, which are limitations that can benefit from AM. However, there are challenges to overcome before AM is considered a conventional method of manufacture, for example, upskilling engineers, increasing the technology readiness level via AM case studies, and understanding the AM build process to deliver the required material properties. This paper describes current progress within a four-year research programme that has the goal to explore these challenges towards creating a strategy for AM adoption within astronomical hardware. Working with early-career engineers, case studies have been undertaken which focus on lightweight AM aluminium mirror manufacture and optical mountings. In parallel, the aluminium AM build parameters have been investigated to understand which combination of parameters results in AM parts with consistent material properties and low defects. Metrology results from two AM case studies will be summarised: the optical characteristics of a lightweighted aluminium mirror intended for in-orbit deployment from a nanosat; and the AM build quality of wire arc additive manufacture for use in an optomechanical housing. Finally, an analysis of how surface roughness from AM mirror samples and build parameters are linked will be discussed.
KEYWORDS: Prototyping, Design and modelling, Single point diamond turning, Optical surfaces, Porosity, Simulations, Mirrors, Mirror surfaces, 3D printing, Additive manufacturing
Additive manufacturing (AM; 3D Printing) is a process that fabricates objects layer-by-layer, unlocking previously unachievable geometrical freedom in design and manufacture. Its adoption for the manufacture of optical components for nanosats is challenging due to limited understanding of its inherent porosity and outgassing properties; however, AM has plenty of potential for lightweight space-based mirror structures as it enables the use of lattice structures and topology optimisation. AM is particularly relevant to nanosat deployable optics (DO) instrumentation, where a segmented mirror needs to be packed within a limited volume and mass budget. This paper describes the design, analysis, manufacture and metrology of AM mirror petal prototypes for a 6U nanosat DO payload. The objective of the prototypes was to reduce the mass and the part count relative to the conventional design. From the available 33 volumetric lattices including graph, triply periodic minimal surface and stochastic lattices within the AM design software used, two were downselected by using finite element analysis and manufacturability experiments. Prototypes were designed using these lattices, and the geometric and interface requirements of the conventional petal. These were printed, using laser powder bed fusion, in the aluminium alloy AlSi10Mg and post-processed using single point diamond turning. The internal (porosity) and external geometrical properties of the manufactured prototypes were measured using X-ray computed tomography and the optical properties of the reflective surface evaluated using interferometry. By utilising AM, a mass reduction of 44 % and the consolidation of nine parts into one was achieved.
The Diamond-NOM slope profilometer has been in operation for more than 15 years in the Optics Metrology Lab at Diamond. It is an established instrument for accurate characterisation of x-ray optics for synchrotron and XFEL beamlines. However, continuous improvements in the fabrication quality of x-ray optics now means that polishing errors are comparable in magnitude to instrumental systematic errors. For x-ray optics with slope errors << 100 nrad rms and height errors < 1 nm, repeated measurements in multiple configurations are typically required to obtain accurate metrology data. To tackle such issues, we have developed a new instrument: the Diamond-VeNOM (velocity-NOM). VeNOM utilizes multiple autocollimators, synchronized with motion stages, to simultaneously measure the optical surface and monitor parasitic motion errors. A significant increase in measurement speed is achieved using 10x faster Elcomat5000 autocollimators. Motion trajectories are aligned with autocollimator data by temporarily blocking the beam paths using electronic shutters, based on triggering signals from positional encoders. Enhanced motion control capabilities allow user-defined velocity profiles of the scanning stage, coordinated with motorised pitch of the optic under test throughout the scan. This enables innovative dynamic scanning strategies, including on-the-fly, free-form, automated nulling of the optical surface throughout the scan to reduce systematic errors.
Additive manufacturing (AM; 3D printing) is a fabrication process that builds an object layer-upon-layer and promotes the use of structures that would not be possible via subtractive machining. Prototype AM metal mirrors are increasingly being studied in order to exploit the advantage of the broad AM design-space to develop intricate lightweight structures that are more optimised for function than traditional open-back mirror lightweighting.
This paper describes a UK Space Agency funded project to design and manufacture a series of lightweighted AM mirrors to fit within a 3U CubeSat chassis. Six AM mirrors of identical design will be presented: two in aluminium (AlSi10Mg), two in nickel phosphorous (NiP) coated AlSi10Mg, and two in titanium (Ti64). For each material mirror pair, one is hand-polished and the other is diamond turned. Metrology data, surface form error and surface roughness, will be presented to compare and contrast the different materials and post-processing methods. To assess the presence of porosity, a frequent concern for AM materials, X-ray computed tomography measurements will be presented to highlight the location and density of pores within the mirror substrates; methods to mitigate the distribution of pores near the optical surface will be described. As a metric for success the AlSi10Mg + NiP and AlSi10Mg mirrors should be suitable for visible and infrared applications respectively.
We present recent advancements in the Optical Metrology Laboratory (OML) at Diamond Light Source. Improvements in optical manufacturing technology, and demands from beamlines at synchrotron and free electron laser facilities, have made it a necessity to routinely characterize X-ray mirrors with slope errors < 100 nrad rms. The Diamond-NOM profiler can measure large, fully assembled optical systems in a sideways, upwards, or downwards facing geometry. Examples are provided of how it has recently characterized several challenging systems, including: actively bent mirrors; clamped monochromator gratings in a downward-facing geometry; and four, state-of-the-art, elliptically bent, long mirrors with slope errors < 100 nrad rms. The NOM’s components and data analysis procedures are continuously updated to stay ahead of the ever-increasing quality of X-ray optics and opto-mechanics. The OML’s newest instrument is a Zygo HDX 6” Fizeau interferometer. A dedicated support frame and motorized translation and rotation stages enable sub-aperture images to be stitched together using in-house controls and automation software. Cross-comparison of metrology data, including as part of the MooNpics collaboration, provides a valuable insight into the nature of optical defects and helps to push optical fabrication to a new level of quality.
There is growing interest at synchrotron light and X-ray free electron laser facilities to explore and improve the dynamic performance of piezoelectric bimorph deformable X-ray mirrors. Many beamlines, especially those dedicated to Macromolecular Crystallography, need to measure hundreds of samples per day. Shorter acquisition time requires rapid changes in the focus of the X-ray beam to condense the maximum photon density onto the sample. This is necessary to match the X-ray beam to the dimensions of the sample, or to probe variable sized regions of larger samples. Fine control of the X-ray beam becomes crucial for ensuring the highest quality of scientific data and increased throughput. Previous work at Diamond Light Source successfully changed the X-ray beam focus and stabilised it in under 10 seconds using piezoelectric bimorph deformable mirrors. Further updates to the controls software of the programmable HV-ADAPTOS high-voltage power supply (from CAEN / S.RI. Tech) now make it possible to control individual electrodes at 1 Hz using custom voltage profiles. This allows localized compensation of piezo creep, thus improving X-ray beam shape, significantly reducing stabilisation time, and eliminating curvature drift. For ex-situ validation, dynamic changes in the surface of the bimorph mirror need to monitored in real-time with sufficient spatial sensitivity. In this paper, we show that the active optical surface of a bimorph mirror (from Thales-SESO) can be accurately changed with sub-nanometre height sensitivity by dynamically monitoring the mirror’s surface using an array of high-speed (up to 200 kHz) Zygo ZPS™ absolute interferometric displacement sensors mounted in an independent metrology frame.
Design for additive manufacture (AM; 3D printing) is significantly different than design for subtractive machining. Although there are some limitations on the designs that can be printed, the increase in the AM design-space removes some of the existing challenges faced by the traditional lightweight mirror designs; for example, sandwich mirrors are just as easy to fabricate as open-back mirrors via AM, and they provide an improvement in structural rigidity. However, the ability to print a sandwich mirror as a single component does come with extra considerations; such as orientation upon the build plate and access to remove any temporary support material. This paper describes the iterations in optimisation applied to the lightweighting of a small, 84mm diameter by 20mm height, spherical concave mirror intended for CubeSat applications. The initial design, which was fabricated, is discussed in terms of the internal lightweighting design and the design constraints that were imposed by printing and post-processing. Iterations on the initial design are presented; these include the use of topology optimisation to minimise the total internal strain energy during mirror polishing and the use of lattices combined with thickness variation i.e. having a thicker lattice in strategic support locations. To assess the suitability of each design, finite element analysis is presented to quantify the print-through of the lightweighting upon the optical surface for a given mass reduction.
The Spectroscopy and Coherent Scattering (SCS) instrument of the European XFEL is a soft X-ray beamline aiming to unravel electronic, spin and structural properties of materials in ultrafast processes at the nanoscale. Various experimental techniques offered at SCS have different requirements in terms of beam size at the sample. Kirkpatrick-Baez (KB) refocusing optics equipped with mechanical benders allows for independent change of the horizontal and vertical beam size. We report here on the first characterization of the SCS KB mirrors by means of a novel diffraction-based technique which images the beam profile on a 2D pixelated detector. This approach provides a quick characterization of micrometer beam sizes. Results are compared with metrology measurements obtained with a non-contact slope profiler.
KEYWORDS: Mirrors, Polishing, Surface roughness, Additive manufacturing, Finite element methods, Space mirrors, Aluminum, Single point diamond turning, Lightweight mirrors, Error analysis, 3D printing
Additive manufacturing (AM), more commonly known as 3D printing, is a commercially established technology for rapid prototyping and fabrication of bespoke intricate parts. To date, research quality mirror prototypes are being trialled using additive manufacturing, where a high quality reflective surface is created in a post-processing step. One advantage of additive manufacturing for mirror fabrication is the ease to lightweight the structure: the design is no longer confined by traditional machining (mill, drill and lathe) and optimised/innovative structures can be used. The end applications of lightweight AM mirrors are broad; the motivation behind this research is low mass mirrors for space-based astronomical or Earth Observation imaging. An example of a potential application could be within nano-satellites, where volume and mass limits are critical. The research presented in this paper highlights the early stage experimental development in AM mirrors and the future innovative designs which could be applied using AM.
The surface roughness on a diamond-turned AM aluminium (AlSi10Mg) mirror is presented which demonstrates the ability to achieve an average roughness of ~3.6nm root mean square (RMS) measured over a 3 x 3 grid. A Fourier transform of the roughness data is shown which deconvolves the roughness into contributions from the diamond-turning tooling and the AM build layers. In addition, two nickel phosphorus (NiP) coated AlSi10Mg AM mirrors are compared in terms of surface form error; one mirror has a generic sandwich lightweight design at 44% the mass of a solid equivalent, prior to coating and the second mirror was lightweighted further using the finite element analysis tool topology optimisation. The surface form error indicates an improvement in peak-to-valley (PV) from 323nm to 204nm and in RMS from 83nm to 31nm for the generic and optimised lightweighting respectively while demonstrating a weight reduction between the samples of 18%. The paper concludes with a discussion of the breadth of AM design that could be applied to mirror lightweighting in the future, in particular, topology optimisation, tessellating polyhedrons and Voronoi cells are presented.
Deformable, piezo bimorph mirrors are often used to expand X-ray beams to a continuous range of sizes. However,
optical polishing errors present on all X-ray mirrors introduce striations into the reflected beam. To counteract them, reentrant
surface modifications with alternating concave and convex curvature have been proposed and applied to mirrors
of fixed shape or bimorph mirrors. For the latter, a new method of constructing re-entrant surface modifications on
segments of unequal length is described. This allows the re-entrant modification required for a desired beam size at the
focal point to be matched to the bimorph mirror’s polishing errors, thus reducing the voltage variations. Optical
profilometry using the Diamond-NOM showed that a 5-segment and a 7-segment modification could be suitably applied
to a deformable bimorph mirror. X-ray tests showed that striations caused by the 5-segment modification in the beam at
the focus are concentrated at the beam edges, while the beam center is left clear. This is in contrast to simple defocusing,
in which a strong side shoulder appears. The 7-segment modification produces a pattern of evenly spaced striations. The
intensity spikes seen with the re-entrant modifications are caused chiefly by the finite curvature of the mirror at the
turning points. The question of whether deformable bimorph mirrors with different piezo response functions could
sharpen the curvature changes will be investigated. Optimal modifications of continuous curvature, which could more
realistically be applied, will be sought.
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